tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3251398193508379722024-03-13T14:15:36.635-07:00NursesLUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.comBlogger107125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-7384734394301806582009-02-11T23:25:00.000-08:002009-02-12T04:25:22.932-08:00mY bLoG<br> <!-- multiply:no_crosspost --><p class='multiply:no_crosspost'></p>LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-28260605060003901482009-01-11T05:46:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:49:42.724-08:00Rheumatoid Arthritis<span style="font-weight:bold;">Rheumatoid Arthritis</span><br />Definition<br />Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that causes pain, swelling, stiffness, and loss of function in the joints. RA usually affects the same joint on both sides of the body. It occurs most frequently in the: <br />• Fingers<br />• Wrists<br />• Elbows<br />• Shoulders<br />• Jaw<br />• Hips<br />• Knees<br />• Toes<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Rheumatoid Arthritis</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn4evHk-mI/AAAAAAAAArA/k9UhmCCsHOg/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 391px; height: 255px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn4evHk-mI/AAAAAAAAArA/k9UhmCCsHOg/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290032444251372130" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />Rheumatoid arthritis is likely to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors that trigger an abnormal immune response. Possible causes include: <br />• Genetic Factors–certain genes that play a role in the immune system are associated with the development of RA<br />• Defects in the immune system, which cause ongoing inflammation<br />• Environmental Factors–certain infectious agents, such as some viruses or bacteria, may increase susceptibility to RA<br />• Other Factors–some evidence suggests that hormonal factors may promote the development of RA in combination with genetic factors and environmental exposure<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. <br />Risk factors include: <br />• Family members with rheumatoid arthritis<br />• Sex: Female<br />• Ethnic background: Pima Indians<br />• Heavy or long-term smoking<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />When RA first begins, symptoms may include: <br />• Joint pain and stiffness that is: <br />o Symmetrical<br />o Most prominent in the morning<br />o Lasts for at least half an hour<br />• Red, warm, or swollen joints<br />• Joint deformity<br />• Mild fever, tiredness<br />• Loss of appetite<br />• Small lumps or nodules under the skin<br />As RA progresses, it may cause complications with the: <br />• Heart<br />• Lungs<br />• Eyes<br />• Skin<br />• Liver<br />• Kidneys<br />• Blood<br />• Nervous system<br />• Blood vessels<br />• It is also associated with the development of early cardiovascular disease and death<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />There is no single test for RA. The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. Physical exam will include an examination of your joints, skin, reflexes, and muscle strength.<br />Tests may include: <br />• Measuring rheumatoid factor (RF) level in the blood<br />• Measuring erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) of the blood to measure inflammation in the body<br />• Measuring C-reactive protein (CRP)–an indicator of active inflammation in the blood<br />• White blood cell count<br />• X-rays of affected joints (especially dual energy x-ray absorptiometry)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />There is no treatment to cure RA. The goals of treatment are to: <br />• Relieve pain<br />• Reduce inflammation<br />• Slow down joint damage<br />• Improve functional ability<br />Treatments include:<br />Medications<br />• Disease-modifying Antirheumatic Drugs (DMARDS)–to slow the course of the disease. These medications are used early in the course of the disease to prevent long-term damage: <br />o Methotrexate (Rheumatrex)<br />o Hydroxychloroquine (Plaquenil)<br />o Sulfasalazine (Azulfidine)<br />o Leflunomide (Arava), cyclosporine (Neoral)<br />o Penicillamine (Cuprimine)<br />o Gold (Ridaura)–gold can also be given as an injection<br />o Minocycline (Minocin)<br />• Immunosuppressive drugs (only used when other DMARDS are ineffective): <br />o Azathioprine (Imuran)<br />o Cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan)–rarely used<br />o Chlorambucil (Leukeran)–rarely used<br />• Biologic response modifiers–drugs that interfere with the autoimmune response associated with RA. <br />o Etanercept (Enbrel)<br />o Infliximab (Remicade)<br />o Adalimumab (Humira) <br />o Abatacept (Orencia) <br />o Rituximab (Rituxan) <br />• Adjunctive medications include:<br />o Acetaminophen (Tylenol) <br />o Non-steriodal anti inflammatory medications including ibuprofen and naproxen <br /> A study showed a small but significant increased risk of cardiovascular events (such as heart attack) in patients taking the prescription medication. Vioxx(R) is a so-called "selective" nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) specially designed to lower the risk of stomach irritation. It is commonly used in the treatment of acute and chronic pain associated with arthritis, menstruation, and other conditions. Since Merck's withdrawal of Vioxx(R), evidence has come to light regarding similar dangers posed by the other popular selective NSAID, Celebrex(R) (cefecoxib), which is produced by Pfizer. Most physicians now question the wisdom of prescribing any medications from the COX-2 class, particularly in patients with known cardiovascular disease. <br />Steroids<br />Low-dose corticosteroids (prednisone 10mg or the equivalent) are often used initially, and may be tapered when other drugs gain efficacy. Long-term steroid use should be avoided. Corticosteroid injections to individual inflamed joints may also be used. <br />Rest and Exercise<br />Rest helps reduce active joint inflammation and pain, and fight fatigue. Exercise is important for maintaining muscle strength and flexibility, as well as preserving joint mobility.<br />Joint Care<br />Splints applied to painful joints may reduce pain and swelling. Devices that assist in activities of daily living can also reduce stress on joints, such as: <br />• Zipper extenders<br />• Long-handled shoehorns<br />• Specially designed kitchen tools<br />Stress Reduction<br />Stress reduction can ease the difficulties of living with a chronic, painful disease. Exercise programs, support groups, and open communication with healthcare providers can all help reduce stress.<br />Surgery<br />Joint replacement and tendon reconstruction help alleviate severe joint damage.<br />Lifestyle Measures<br />The following measures may relieve stiffness and weakness and reduce inflammation: <br />• Maintain a balance between rest and exercise<br />• Attempt mild strength training<br />• Aerobic exercise (walking, swimming, dancing)<br />• Avoid heavy impact exercise<br />• Stop smoking<br />• Control weight<br />• Physical therapy<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />There are no guidelines for preventing rheumatoid arthritis.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-74249633786960826992009-01-11T05:44:00.000-08:002009-02-19T05:51:51.945-08:00Rheumatic Fever<span style="font-weight:bold;">Rheumatic Fever</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />Rheumatic fever is an inflammatory condition involving the connective tissues in the body. It's most severe complication is rheumatic heart disease. This condition may permanently damage the heart valves, and affect the flow of blood to and from the heart. Symptoms of valve damage often don't appear for 10-30 years after the initial episode of rheumatic fever. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />Rheumatic fever is a complication of group A streptococcus pharyngitis (strep throat). The vast majority of people with strep throat do not develop rheumatic fever. However, in some people infected with group A strep, the body's immune system not only fights the bacteria, but also attacks its own tissues, especially heart tissue.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. <br />Risk factors include:<br />• Age: 5-15 years old<br />• Previous case of rheumatic fever<br />• Malnutrition<br />• Overcrowded living conditions<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />Symptoms usually appear 2-4 weeks after a strep infection. They may include: <br />• Pain and swelling in large joints<br />• Fever<br />• Weakness<br />• Muscle aches<br />• Shortness of breath<br />• Chest pain<br />• Nausea and vomiting<br />• Hacking cough<br />• Circular rash<br />• Lumps under the skin<br />• Abnormal, sudden movements of arms and legs<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. This will include a careful exam of your heart. The doctor may take a throat culture and perform a blood test for streptococcal antibodies.<br />Other tests may include:<br />Other Blood Tests–such as erythrocyte sedimentation rate to measure inflammation in the body, and blood cultures to determine if bacteria is present in the blood<br />Electrocardiogram–a test that records the heart's activity by measuring electrical currents through the heart muscle<br />Echocardiogram–a sonogram which visualizes the heart valves, and measures the contractile function of the heart muscle <br />Chest X-ray–a test that uses radiation to take a picture of structures inside the body, in this case the heart<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />The goals of treatment are to: <br />• Kill the strep bacteria<br />• Treat the inflammation caused by the rheumatic fever<br />• Prevent future cases of rheumatic fever<br />Treatment may include:<br />Antibiotics<br />Penicillin or other antibiotics including erythromycin and azithromycin may be given to treat the strep infection. People who have had rheumatic fever are at high risk of getting it again. To prevent another bout of rheumatic fever, you may need to take antibiotics regularly for several years after the initial infection. These may be given by mouth or by monthly injections.<br />Anti-inflammatory Drugs<br />Aspirin or other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may help with joint pain and swelling. Corticosteroids may be used if NSAIDs are not effective.<br />Rest<br />If inflammation is severe, the doctor may prescribe bed rest or severe restriction of physical activity for a period of time.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />Promptly treating strep throat with antibiotics can prevent rheumatic fever. If you or your child has a sore throat and a fever that lasts more than 24 hours, contact your doctor.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-25871814328000167632009-01-11T05:43:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:50:18.222-08:00Rhabdomyolysis<span style="font-weight:bold;">Rhabdomyolysis</span><br />Definition<br />Rhabdomyolysis occurs when skeletal muscles are damaged and release myoglobin into the bloodstream. Myoglobin is an iron-containing pigment that can cause severe damage to the kidneys.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />Rhabdomyolysis results from any condition that causes significant muscle damage. These include: <br />• Certain muscle diseases<br />• Severe muscle injuries (eg, crush injury)<br />• Overuse of alcohol or illicit drugs<br />• Use of some prescription drugs<br />• Severe seizures or convulsions<br />• Rarely may be caused by extensive surgical procedures using large muscle dividing incisions <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chances of getting a disease or condition. Factors that may increase the risk of muscle damage include: <br />• Extreme exertion, such as running a marathon<br />• Heatstroke<br />• Alcohol or drug abuse<br />• Uncontrolled seizure disorder<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />The most common symptoms include: <br />• Dark colored (brown or red) urine<br />• Muscle pain<br />• Muscle weakness<br />Other symptoms include: <br />• Muscle swelling<br />• Back pain<br />• Nausea<br />• Vomiting<br />In severe cases, rhabdomyolysis may result in: <br />• Kidney damage or failure due to blocked arterial blood flow<br />• Multi-organ failure<br />• Abnormal heartbeat (arrhythmia)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. Tests may include: <br />• Urine tests<br />• Blood tests<br />• Muscle testing (electromyography)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Treatment may include:<br />Hydration<br />Giving large amounts of fluid is the main treatment. Fluids are usually given directly into a vein by an IV. Hydration helps to quickly flush myoglobin out of the kidneys, in order to restore their function.<br />Medication<br />Medication may include: <br />• Diuretics, to help flush out the kidneys<br />• Bicarbonate, to minimize myoglobin's toxic effects<br />Dialysis<br />Dialysis is a procedure that uses an artificial kidney machine to filter blood. The clean blood is then returned to your body.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />Steps for prevention include: <br />• Drink plenty of fluids when: <br />o Exercising<br />o Sitting or working in hot, humid weather<br />• Avoid overuse of alcohol<br />• Avoid illicit drugsLUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-85268202596502650962009-01-11T05:42:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:50:49.760-08:00Rh IncompatibilityRh Incompatibility and Isoimmunization</span><br />(D Incompatibility)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />One of the first tests performed at the beginning of a pregnancy is blood-type. This basic test determines your blood type and Rh factor. People with different blood types have proteins specific to that blood type on the surfaces of their red blood cells. <br />There are four blood types (A, B, AB, and O). Each of the four blood types is additionally classified according to the presence of another protein on the surface of red blood cells that indicates your Rh factor. If you carry this protein, you are Rh positive. If you don't carry the protein, you are Rh negative. <br />Most people—about 85%—are Rh positive. But if a woman who is Rh negative and a man who is Rh positive conceive a baby, there is the potential for incompatibility. The baby growing inside the Rh-negative mother may have Rh-positive blood, inherited from the father. Statistically, at least 50% of the children born to an Rh-negative mother and Rh-positive father will be Rh positive. <br />Causes<br />Rh incompatibility occurs when a woman is Rh negative, but her fetus has inherited Rh-positive blood from the father. It rarely occurs in a woman's first pregnancy. She only becomes sensitized to the fetus's Rh-positive blood once she comes in contact with it. This is usually not until very late in pregnancy or during childbirth. This can also occur during a miscarriage or if the fetus is aborted. In rare cases, it can happen during an amniocentesis or other invasive procedures related to pregnancy. <br />A woman can also become sensitized to Rh-positive blood if she receives an incompatible blood transfusion. In most cases of Rh incompatibility, there are not disease manifestations. If maternal antibodies develop against Rh-positive proteins, then these antibodies could affect a current or future fetus during pregnancy. This is called Rh isoimmunization. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. Risk factors include: <br />• Being a pregnant woman with Rh-negative blood who had a prior pregnancy with a fetus that was Rh positive <br />• Being a pregnant woman who had a prior blood transfusion or amniocentesis<br />• Being a pregnant woman with Rh-negative blood who did not receive Rh immunization during a prior pregnancy <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />Symptoms and complications only affect the fetus and/or newborn. They occur when standard preventive measures are not taken and can vary from mild to very serious. The mother's health is not affected.<br />Symptoms of the newborn baby include: <br />• Anemia<br />• Swelling of the body, which may be associated with: <br />o Heart failure<br />o Respiratory problems<br />This condition is also referred to a hydrops fetalis.<br />• Kernicterus (a neurological syndrome), which can occurs in stages: <br />o Early:<br /> High bilirubin level (greater than 18 mg/cc) <br /> Extreme jaundice <br /> Absent moro (startle) reflex <br /> Poor suck <br /> Lethargy<br />o Intermediate: <br /> High-pitched cry <br /> Arched back with neck hyperextended backwards (opisthotonos) <br /> Bulging fontanel (soft spot) <br /> Seizures<br />o Late: <br /> High-pitched hearing loss <br /> Mental retardation <br /> Muscle rigidity <br /> Speech difficulties <br /> Seizures <br /> Movement disorder <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />There aren't any physical symptoms that would allow you to detect on your own if you are Rh incompatible with any given pregnancy. If you are pregnant, it is standard procedure for your healthcare provider to order a blood test that will determine whether you are Rh positive or Rh negative. If the blood test indicates that you have developed Rh antibodies, your blood will be monitored regularly to assess the level of antibodies it contains. If the levels are high, an amniocentesis would be recommended to determine the degree of impact on the fetus. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Since Rh incompatibility is almost completely preventable with the use of immunization (immune globulin injection of RhoGAM), prevention remains the best treatment. <br />Immune Globulin Injection<br />You will be given an injection of Rh0 immune globulin at week 28 of the pregnancy. This desensitizes your blood to Rh-positive blood. You will also have another injection of immune globulin within 72 hours after delivery (or miscarriage or abortion). This further desensitizes your blood for future pregnancies.<br />Treatment to Newborn<br />Treatment of a pregnancy or newborn depends on the severity of the condition. <br />• Mild: <br />o Aggressive hydration<br />o Phototherapy using 'bilirubin' lights <br />• Hydrops fetalis: <br />o Amniocentesis to determine severity <br />o Intrauterine fetal transfusion <br />o Early induction of labor <br />o A direct transfusion of packed red blood cells (compatible with the infant's blood) and also exchange transfusion of the newborn to rid the blood of the maternal antibodies that are destroying the red blood cells <br />o Control of congestive failure and fluid retention<br />• Kernicterus: <br />o Exchange transfusion (may require multiple exchanges) <br />o Phototherapy <br />Outcome<br />Full recovery is expected for mild Rh incompatibility. Both hydrops fetalis and kernicterus represent extreme conditions caused by hemolysis. Both have guarded outcomes. Hydrops fetalis has a high risk of mortality. Long-term problems can result from severe cases. These can include:<br />• Cognitive delays <br />• Movement disorders <br />• Hearing loss <br />• Seizures<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />Rh incompatibility is almost completely preventable. Rh-negative mothers should be followed closely by their obstetricians during pregnancy. If the father of the infant is Rh-positive, the mother is given a mid-term injection of RhoGAM and a second injection within a few days of delivery. These injections prevent the development of antibodies against Rh-positive blood. This effectively prevents the condition. Routine prenatal care should help identify, manage, and treat any complications of Rh incompatibility.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-16377768486348659472009-01-11T05:41:00.000-08:002009-02-19T05:52:21.685-08:00Reye's Syndrome<span style="font-weight:bold;">Reye's Syndrome</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />Reye's syndrome is a serious disorder that causes increased pressure in the brain and build-up of fat in the liver and other organs. It affects all organs of the body, but is most harmful to the brain and liver. Reye's syndrome occurs primarily in children, most often during recovery from a viral infection.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />The cause of Reye's syndrome is unknown. However, studies have found a link with the use of aspirin and other salicylates during a viral illness.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. Your risk of Reye's syndrome increases with:<br />• Age: 2-16 years old<br />• Recent viral illness, including: <br />o Upper respiratory infection<br />o Influenza (the Flu)<br />o Chickenpox<br />• Use of aspirin or other salicylates<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />Symptoms usually occur after a viral illness, and are divided into five stages:<br />Stage 1:<br />• Frequent or persistent vomiting<br />• Drowsiness and fatigue<br />Stage 2:<br />• Personality changes, such as irritability and aggression<br />• Confusion<br />• Disordered speech<br />• Hallucinations<br />Stages 3-5:<br />• Coma<br />• Seizures<br />• Inability to breathe without help <br />Brain swelling and other problems in Reye's syndrome progress very quickly. They may result in permanent neurologic damage or death. Call a doctor immediately if you think your child has Reye's syndrome.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />The doctor will ask about symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. Tests may include:<br />Liver Function Tests - These include: <br />• SGOT (AST)<br />• SGPT (ALT)<br />• LDH<br />• Ammonia<br />• Prothrombin time<br />Spinal Tap (Lumbar Puncture) – insertion of a needle between the lumbar vertebrae in the back to remove spinal fluid for testing<br />Liver Biopsy – removal of a sample of liver tissue for testing<br />Note that certain inherited metabolic disorders can present with signs and symptoms that mimic Reye’s syndrome. Some have specific treatments, and all may recur—sometimes fatally—unless diagnosed appropriately. Tests for these disorders (such as ornithine transcarbamylase syndrome) should be done in all children with Reye’s syndrome. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Early diagnosis and treatment are essential for a successful recovery.<br />Treatment may include:<br />Medication<br />Medications include: <br />• Corticosteroids<br />• Diuretics<br />• Glucose<br />• Insulin<br />• Barbiturates<br />• Specific treatments to reduce blood ammonia levels<br />o Sodium phenylacetate and sodium benzoate <br />o Dialysis<br />• Odansetran (Zofran) for severe vomiting<br />Arterial Catheter<br />If symptoms affect the brain, an arterial catheter may be inserted to monitor the pressure, carbon dioxide, and oxygen content of blood. <br />Pressure Monitoring<br />In stage 3-5 Reye’s syndrome, a “bolt” or other device may be used to monitor pressure within the brain.<br />Ventilator<br />In advanced stages, a ventilator may be used to assist with breathing.<br />Surgery<br />A drainage procedure or decompression craniotomy may occasionally be needed to reduce pressure in the brain.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />To prevent Reye's syndrome: <br />• Aspirin is not recommended for children and teens with a current or recent viral infection. Check with your doctor before giving aspirin to a child or teen. Widespread decline in the use of aspirin for children is one reason why the incidence of Reye’s syndrome has decreased dramatically in recent years.<br />• Avoid giving children and teens medications that contain salicylates. Examples include Alka-Seltzer, Anacin, Bufferin, and Pepto-Bismol.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-53097425610105837512009-01-11T05:40:00.001-08:002009-02-19T05:53:01.007-08:00Retinoblastoma<span style="font-weight:bold;">Retinoblastoma</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition </span><br />Retinoblastoma is a rare type of cancer found in the eye. In retinoblastoma, one or more tumors form in the retina. The retina is a layer of light-sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eye. It converts visual images into nerve impulses in the brain that allow us to see. If not treated, the tumors will continue growing. The cancer may grow along the optic nerve and reach the brain. Or it may travel to other parts of the body. <br />Cancer occurs when cells in the body (in this case retina cells) divide without control or order. Normally, cells divide in a regulated manner. If cells keep dividing uncontrollably when new cells are not needed, a mass of tissue forms, called a growth or tumor. Tumors can invade nearby tissues and spread to other parts of the body. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Normal Anatomy of the Eye</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn26ntvIvI/AAAAAAAAAq4/p5LlkcKnxDk/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 391px; height: 255px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn26ntvIvI/AAAAAAAAAq4/p5LlkcKnxDk/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290030724277019378" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes </span><br />During early stages of fetal development, fast-growing, immature cells called retinoblasts form. Later, these cells become retinal cells. In retinoblastoma, some of these cells quickly grow out of control. Some cases of the tumor are inherited. Others are not. Retinoblastoma usually forms only in one eye. But both eyes may have tumors. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors </span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chances of getting a disease or condition. Risk factors for retinoblastoma include: <br />• Age: Less than 5 years old (typically) <br />• Family members with retinoblastoma <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms </span><br />Symptoms are usually noticed by the parent or caregiver and may include, but are not limited to: <br />• Eyes do not look normal, often described as a glazed look or a “cat’s eye.” <br />• When a light is directed at the eye, the pupil looks white rather than red. This is often noticed on a photograph. <br />• Eyes may appear to be crossed or looking in different directions. <br />• Less common symptoms may include: <br />o Eye may grow in size <br />o Eye pain <br />o Redness in the white part of the eye <br />o Tearing <br />o Pupil may not respond to light <br />o Iris (colored part of the eye) changes color <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis </span><br />The doctor will ask about symptoms and family medical history, and perform a physical exam. Many retinoblastomas are found during routine physical exams. If a tumor is suspected, the child will usually be referred to a specialist for a more complete eye exam. In children with a family history of the disease, eye exams often begin within a day or two of birth. Additional eye exams are scheduled at regular intervals thereafter. <br />Once retinoblastoma is found, staging tests are performed to find out if the cancer has spread, and, if so, to what extent. Treatment depends on the stage of the cancer. The cancer may be localized to the eyes. Or it may have spread to tissues around the eye or to other parts of the body. <br />Tests may include, but are not limited to: <br />• Eye Exam–the pupil is dilated with eye drops. Then the inside of the eye is examined with a lighted instrument that allows the examiner to view structures inside the eye. <br />• Ultrasound–a test that uses sound waves to examine the inner part of the eye. <br />• MRI Scan–a test that uses magnetic waves to make pictures of the inside of the body. It can be used to check for spread of the cancer to the brain or other tissue. <br />• CT Scan–a type of x-ray that uses a computer to make pictures of the eye. CT scans of other areas of the body may be done to check if the cancer has spread. <br />General anesthesia may be given to keep the child still during close examination and testing. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment </span><br />Your child will likely be referred to a specialist for treatment. Without treatment, the cancer cells will continue to grow. <br />Treatment aims to cure the cancer and preserve sight. Options vary, depending on whether the disease is limited to the eye or has spread, and how large and where in the eye the tumor is located. Therapies may be used alone or in combination. <br />Treatments include: <br />Surgery–surgical removal of the entire eye and as much of the optic nerve as possible. The optic nerve is the nerve leading from the eye to the brain that is responsible for vision. Surgery may be used for a large tumor in one eye. <br />Radiation Therapy–the use of radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may be: <br />External Radiation Therapy–radiation directed at the tumor from a source outside the body <br />Internal Radiation Therapy–radioactive materials placed into the body near the cancer cells <br />Cryotherapy –the use of cold to freeze and destroy cancer cells. It is used on small tumors. <br />Thermotherapy–the use of heat to kill cancer cells. <br />Photocoagulation–the use of lasers to destroy a small tumor. <br />Chemotherapy–the use of drugs to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy may be given in many forms including pill, injection, and through a catheter. The drugs enter the bloodstream and travel through the body killing mostly cancer cells, but also some healthy cells. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention </span><br />Genetic counseling and close monitoring and screening for people at risk for retinoblastoma can help prevent the disease or detect it early if it occurs. <br />Early diagnosis and treatment improve the chance of successful treatment. Prevention and early detection techniques include: <br />• Screening–children born into families with a history of retinoblastoma should have regular eye exams to screen for development of the tumor. All children should have regular eye screening by their doctor. <br />• Genetic Counseling–may help determine a person’s risk of developing retinoblastoma. If you have retinoblastoma or have a family history of the disorder, you can talk to a genetic counselor when deciding to have children. <br />• Monitoring for Recurrence–people who have been treated for retinoblastoma require regular medical exams to assess the success of treatment and check for recurrence or bilateral disease. <br />• Monitoring for Other Cancers–children with retinoblastoma are at increased risk for an associated brain tumor and other cancers in the body.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-83514394832046112252009-01-11T05:37:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:51:53.569-08:00Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)<span style="font-weight:bold;">Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Newborns</span><br />(Hyaline Membrane Disease)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) occurs mainly in infants who are born prematurely. It causes newborns to have difficulty breathing. If it is not properly treated, RDS can result in complications, such as an infection of the bloodstream and bleeding into the brain. In severe cases, RDS can lead to convulsions and death.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />RDS occurs in premature infants because their lungs have not developed enough. Immature lungs lack surfactant. Surfactant is a foamy fluid that is crucial for the air sacs in the lungs to expand and take in air. When there is not enough surfactant, the lungs cannot expand and the baby has a hard time breathing.<br />The chance of developing RDS decreases as the fetus grows. Babies born after 36 weeks rarely develop this condition.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Respiratory System of an Infant</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn2kKWCjWI/AAAAAAAAAqw/8LqZ7DRiKwM/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 210px; height: 312px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn2kKWCjWI/AAAAAAAAAqw/8LqZ7DRiKwM/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290030338435878242" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chances of getting a disease or condition. <br />• Birth before 37 weeks; this condition is more common and more severe with greater prematurity<br />• Mother with insulin dependent diabetes<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />The following symptoms usually start immediately or within a few hours after birth: <br />• Difficulty breathing<br />• Rapid, shallow breathing<br />• Delayed or weak cry<br />• Grunting noise with every breath<br />• Flaring of the nostrils<br />• Frothing at the lips<br />• Blue color around the lips and nail beds<br />• Swelling of the extremities<br />• Decreased urine output<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />The doctor will ask about the mother's medical history and pregnancy. The baby will also be evaluated, as outlined here:<br />Before Birth<br />Amniotic fluid may be tested for indicators of fetal lung maturity such as: <br />• Surfactant<br />• Lecithin:sphingmyelin ratio<br />• Phosphatidyl glycerol<br />After Birth<br />Physical Exam–includes checking the baby's breathing and looking for bluish color around the lips and nail beds<br />Testing for Blood Gases–to check the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood<br />Chest X-ray–a test that uses radiation to take a picture of structures inside the body, in this case the chest<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Treatment for a baby with RDS usually includes oxygen and may also include:<br />Mechanical Respirator<br />A mechanical respirator (breathing machine) is used to keep the air sacs from collapsing and to improve the exchange of oxygen and other gases in the lungs. This treatment helps the baby breathe better and is almost always required in severe RDS.<br />Surfactant Treatment<br />Surfactant can be given to help the air sacs in the lungs expand and take in more oxygen. There are two options, both of which are delivered directly into the baby's windpipe. One type of surfactant comes from cows and the other is synthetic. As the surfactant takes effect, use of the respirator can gradually be reduced.<br />Partial Liquid Ventilation<br />Babies with severe RDS may need to have a special liquid put into their lungs that contains extra oxygen.<br />Nutrition Support<br />Newborns with RDS may be given food and water by the following means: <br />• Tube feeding–a tube is inserted through the baby's mouth and into the stomach<br />• Parenteral feeding–nutrients are delivered directly into a vein<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />Steps to help prevent RDS can be taken at a few different times.<br />To reduce your chance of having a premature baby: <br />• Get good prenatal care beginning as early as possible in pregnancy.<br />• Eat a healthful diet and take vitamins suggested by your doctor.<br />• Do not smoke or use alcohol or drugs.<br />• Only take medicines that your doctor has approved.<br />If you are at high risk of giving birth to a premature baby: <br />• You may be given steroids just before delivery to help your baby's lungs develop<br />• Your doctor may do an amniocentesis to check the maturity of your baby's lungs and to help determine the best time for delivery<br />After delivery, if a premature baby has a very high chance of developing RDS, surfactant may be given right after birth to help the baby breathe better.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-50066495471871332442009-01-11T05:35:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:52:13.243-08:00Raynaud's Disease<span style="font-weight:bold;">Raynaud's Disease and Phenomenon</span><br />Pronounced: ray-NODES<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />Raynaud's disease and phenomenon are circulatory disorders. During an attack, blood vessels narrow. This causes blood flow to the fingers and sometimes ears, nose, and lips to be severely reduced. Cold temperatures or emotional stress, such as excitement or nervousness, are the usual causes of attacks. Although blood vessels naturally become narrower under these circumstances, Raynaud's is an abnormally exaggerated response.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Constriction of Blood Vessels</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn17VZG2fI/AAAAAAAAAqo/ZxgypbEW7K0/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 390px; height: 254px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn17VZG2fI/AAAAAAAAAqo/ZxgypbEW7K0/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290029637026896370" /></a> <br />There are two types:<br />Primary Raynaud's (Raynaud's Disease)<br />This is the most common form. Primary Raynaud's occurs by itself, in the absence of other medical conditions.<br />Secondary Raynaud's (Raynaud's Phenomenon)<br />This is the more severe form. People with secondary Raynaud's also have some other underlying medical condition that is thought to also cause Raynaud's. Some common conditions associated with Raynaud's include: <br />• Scleroderma<br />• Lupus<br />• Rheumatoid arthritis<br />• Sjogren's syndrome<br />• Carpal tunnel syndrome<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />The cause of primary Raynaud's is not known, but it is probably related to an abnormality of the sympathetic nervous system. Secondary Raynauld's is believed to be caused by the associated disease.<br />Risk Factors<br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. Risk factors for Raynaud's syndrome include:<br />• Sex: Female<br />• Age: 15-40 years old<br />• Jobs or leisure activities: Activities that subject the hands to repeated stress may increase the chance of developing Raynaud's. For example: <br />o Typing<br />o Playing piano<br />o Regular operation of vibrating tools, as in construction<br />o Exposure to certain chemicals<br />• A connective tissue disease<br />• Diseases of the arteries, including atherosclerosis<br />• Injuries to the hands or feet, such as wrist fractures or frostbite<br />• Smoking<br />• Certain medications, such as: <br />o Beta-blockers<br />o Cancer chemotherapy<br />o Cold remedies<br />o Migraine medications containing ergotamine<br />o Estrogen-containing medications<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />An attack of Raynaud's may last a few minutes to a few hours. During an attack, symptoms may include: <br />• Skin discoloration–during an attack, skin color may change to white, blue, and red. <br />o White occurs when the arteries narrow or collapse.<br />o Blue appears when the fingers, toes, or other areas are not getting enough oxygen-rich blood.<br />o The skin turns red and may become swollen when the attack subsides and blood returns.<br />• Throbbing and tingling sensations, stinging, pain, swelling of the affected area. This may occur at the end of the attack as blood flow increases and returns to the extremities.<br />People with secondary Raynaud's may experience other medical problems related to Raynaud's, such as: <br />• Skin thinning and ulcerations<br />• Gangrene (tissue death)<br />• Many other symptoms related to their underlying connective tissue disorder<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. Tests may include:<br />Nailfold Capillaroscopy–study of the capillaries under a microscope<br />Blood Tests–to help distinguish between Raynaud's disease and phenomenon, and to help identify underlying autoimmune conditions: <br />• Antinuclear Antibody Test (ANA)<br />• Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />There are several ways to reduce the symptoms of Raynaud's during an attack:<br />Create Warmth for Fingers and Toes<br />• Run warm (not hot) water over fingers and toes as quickly as possible. However, do not place anything hot on your skin, as it may cause damage.<br />• If you are outside, move inside.<br />• Place your hands on a warm area of the body, such as under your armpits or on the abdomen.<br />Stimulate Blood Flow<br />Try to stimulate blood circulation by wiggling your fingers and toes, and making wide circles with your arms.<br />Medications<br />When the above measures fail, medications may help relieve symptoms, and even help begin to heal skin ulcers that have formed. Medications may include:<br />• Calcium channel blockers, such as nifedipine<br />• Alpha-blockers, such as prazosin<br />• Vasodilators, such as a nitriglycerin cream<br />Surgery<br />Rarely, surgery may be done when symptoms are persistent and debilitating. This involves cutting the sympathetic nerves that supply the affected fingers (called sympathetectomy). In extremely rare instances, a finger of toe that has suffered gangrene may require amputation.<br />Chemical Injection<br />Chemicals may be injected into the sympathetic nerve that is responsible for blood vessel constriction. <br />Treating Underlying Medical Condition<br />If you have Raynaud's phenomena, successful management of the underlying connective tissue or vascular disorder can help to relieve symptoms.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />There are no guidelines for preventing Raynaud's disease and phenomenon. To prevent symptoms of Raynaud's: <br />• Stay warm. Avoid cold temperatures when possible.<br />• Dress in layers.<br />• Always wear clothing that covers extremities (hats, gloves, socks, etc.).<br />• Learn to adapt to stressful situations.<br />• Avoid caffeine.<br />• Don't smoke. If you smoke, quit.<br />• Exercise regularly.<br />• Consider using biofeedback training to control body temperature.<br />• Avoid the use of medications known to exacerbate Raynaud’s.<br />To minimize the risk of complications from Raynaud's: <br />• Keep skin on fingers and toes lubricated and protected.<br />• Avoid injuries.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-23395435489008312452009-01-11T05:33:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:52:43.490-08:00Rabies<span style="font-weight:bold;">Rabies</span><br />Definition<br />Rabies is a viral infection of the central nervous system. Rabies is almost always fatal unless treated before symptoms appear.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">The Nervous System</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn1foig19I/AAAAAAAAAqg/inzIXWHiQS0/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 373px; height: 295px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn1foig19I/AAAAAAAAAqg/inzIXWHiQS0/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290029161130285010" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />A virus found in infected, warm-blooded animals causes rabies. Animals in the U.S. that commonly carry the virus include: <br />• Bats<br />• Raccoons<br />• Skunks<br />• Foxes<br />• Coyotes<br />The rabies virus is present in the saliva, brain, or nerve tissue of infected animals. Usually, humans contract rabies through a bite or scratch from an infected animal. The virus may also be transmitted if infected tissue comes into contact with human mucous membranes, such as in the eyes, nose, or mouth.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. The only risk factor for contracting rabies is contact with an infected animal. In most parts of the U.S. any contact with a bat may be considered a rabies risk factor. Seek medical advice if you find a bat anywhere inside your home.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />After exposure, the rabies virus may incubate for 10 days to one or more years in humans before symptoms appear. Usually symptoms develop within 3-7 weeks, after which treatment will not stall the progression of the infection. Death usually occurs within a week after symptoms appear.<br />Symptoms in humans may include: <br />• Pain, tingling, or itching at the site of the bite wound or other site of viral entry<br />• Stiff muscles<br />• Increased production of thick saliva<br />• Flu-like symptoms, such as headache, fever, fatigue, nausea<br />• Painful spasms and contractions of the throat when exposed to water (called "hydrophobia")<br />• Erratic, excited, or bizarre behavior<br />• Paralysis<br />Symptoms in animals may include: <br />• Erratic behavior (often overly aggressive or vicious)<br />• Disorientation (e.g., nocturnal animal such as a bat or fox appearing in daylight)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />If you think you have been exposed to rabies, see a doctor or contact a public health official immediately.<br />If the animal is available and appears well, it will be kept under observation for 7-10 days. If no symptoms develop, you are not at risk for rabies. If the animal is sick or dead, it's head will be shipped to a special facility where its brain will be examined for the presence of the virus. In the meantime, you may be advised to begin treatment.<br />If the animal is unavailable, treatment may often be recommended depending on the animal's species, where the encounter took place, and other factors.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />If an animal has bitten you, immediately do the following: <br />• Wash the wound immediately with plenty of soap and water to remove saliva; this is the most important first step you can take in preventing rabies<br />• Call your doctor or seek care in an emergency room <br />If it is likely that you have been exposed to rabies, your doctor will recommend post-exposure prophylaxis. This involves two injections:<br />Human Rabies Immune Globulin (HRIG)<br />This should ideally be given within 24 hours after exposure. It contains large quantities of antibodies to the rabies virus. In most cases, half of the dose should be injected into the wound and surrounding tissue. The remainder is given intramuscularly. If you have previously received rabies vaccine, you may not need the HRIG shot.<br />Other Rabies Vaccines<br />Unlike the HRIG, rabies vaccines cause your own immune system to develop protective antibodies against the rabies virus. These antibodies will live in your body for many years. There are three types of rabies vaccines available: <br />• Human diploid cell vaccine (HDCV)<br />• Rabies vaccine adsorbed (RVA)<br />• Purified chick embryo cell culture (PCEC)<br />Over the next four weeks, your doctor will give you five shots of one of these vaccines. The vaccine will be injected into your upper arm muscles.<br />Certain medications may interfere with your body's response to the rabies vaccine. Be sure to tell your doctor about all medications or herbs that you take on a regular basis.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />To help prevent rabies: <br />• Vaccinate house pets.<br />• Avoid contact with wild animals.<br />• Do not touch any wild animal, even if it appears to be dead.<br />• Seal basement, porch, and attic openings to prevent an animal from entering your home.<br />• Report any animal to your local animal control authorities that is acting strangely or appears sick.<br />• If you regularly come in contact with animals, have the rabies vaccine prior to any exposure to rabies (preexposure prophylaxis). Booster doses are often required.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-90962657840025809132009-01-11T05:32:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:52:59.133-08:00Pyloric Stenosis<span style="font-weight:bold;">Pyloric Stenosis</span><br />(Infantile Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis) <br />Pronounced: Py-loric sten-OH-sis <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition </span><br />Pyloric stenosis is an enlargement of the pylorus (the muscle at the entrance to the stomach) that blocks movement of food into the stomach. Almost all cases of pyloric stenosis happen in very young babies (usually 3-12 weeks old). This problem happens about 2-4 times out of every 1,000 births. It is much more common in males than in females. The sooner pyloric stenosis is treated, the fewer problems will result and the healthier your baby will be, so if you think your child has this condition, contact your doctor immediately. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Pyloric Stenosis</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn1HBYjPjI/AAAAAAAAAqY/FKykzDAbb0E/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 400px; height: 261px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn1HBYjPjI/AAAAAAAAAqY/FKykzDAbb0E/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290028738302656050" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes </span><br />Pyloric stenosis is rarely present at birth, but develops soon afterward. Its exact cause is unknown, but it is believed to be partly inherited, as cases of pyloric stenosis tend to run in families. <br />Risk Factors <br />The following factors increase your baby’s chance of developing pyloric stenosis. If your child has any of these risk factors, tell your doctor. <br />• Prematurity <br />• Family history of pyloric stenosis <br />• More common in male babies (particularly first-born males) <br />• More common in Caucasian than in Latino, Asian, or African-American babies<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms </span><br />Symptoms of pyloric stenosis usually begin when babies are 3-5 weeks old. They include: <br />• Forceful vomiting of formula or milk <br />• Acting hungry most of the time <br />• Weight loss <br />• Signs of dehydration, such as less urination, dry mouth, and crying without tears <br />• Tiredness <br />• Fewer bowel movements <br />• Blood-tinged vomit (this happens when repeated vomiting irritates the stomach, causing mild stomach bleeding) <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis </span><br />Your doctor will ask about symptoms your child is experiencing and about his or her medical history. He or she will also perform a physical examination. An olive-shaped knot caused by the presence of pyloric stenosis is often felt by the experienced examiner. If your baby is diagnosed with pyloric stenosis, you and your family will be referred to a pediatric surgeon (a doctor specializing in surgery in children). <br />Tests may include the following: <br />• Abdominal Ultrasound–a procedure that uses sound waves to make detailed computer pictures of the inside of the abdomen<br />• Barium Upper Gastrointestinal X-ray Series–a medicine (barium) is swallowed to outline the esophagus and stomach. X-ray pictures of the abdomen can then tell if food is moving normally through the stomach. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment </span><br />Pyloric stenosis is treated with a surgery called a pyloromyotomy, with your baby asleep under anesthesia. In a pyloromyotomy, the outside of the pylorus muscle is cut to relieve the blockage. Prior to surgery, fluids and electrolytes will be given intravenously to correct the dehydration and electrolyte imbalances that are common in babies with pyloric stenosis. After the operation, fluids are given by vein until the baby can take all of his or her normal feedings by mouth. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention </span><br />There are no known ways of preventing pyloric stenosis, although it is possible that breastfeeding might reduce the risk.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-44478879288257993842009-01-11T05:30:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:53:26.468-08:00Pulmonary Embolism<span style="font-weight:bold;">Pulmonary Embolism</span><br />Definition<br />A pulmonary embolism is a blockage of an artery in the lungs caused by a clot that travels through the bloodstream to the lungs.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Pathway of Pulmonary Embolism</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn0xR-ZUZI/AAAAAAAAAqQ/BNovUJmfcKc/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 180px; height: 370px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn0xR-ZUZI/AAAAAAAAAqQ/BNovUJmfcKc/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290028364799234450" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />An embolism occurs when a clot moves through the bloodstream from the location where it was formed and becomes stuck in a blood vessel. The clot, called an embolus, can be a blood clot, air bubble, or piece of fat, bone marrow, or tumor tissue.<br />The embolus in a pulmonary embolism is usually a blood clot. A blood clot that forms and remains in a vein is called a thrombus. It most often starts in a vein in the legs or pelvis. Once the clot is stuck in a lung artery, it blocks the blood from nourishing that lung. The tissues on the other side of the blockage may die if it doesn't receive enough blood from other sources. The lung may become damaged and stop working properly. In severe cases this can lead to death.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. <br />Risk factors for pulmonary embolism include:<br />• Blood clot in a deep vein of a leg or pelvis<br />• Increased levels of clotting factors in the blood. Usually caused by cancer (eg, pancreatic) <br />• Prolonged bed rest, such as during a serious illness<br />• Major surgery, especially after pelvic surgery, knee replacement, or heart surgery<br />• Injury to a vein in a leg or pelvis<br />• Fractures of the hip or thigh bone (femur)<br />• Heart attack, stroke<br />• Certain blood disorders<br />• Prolonged sitting, such as during a long trip<br />• Pregnancy<br />• Birth control pills<br />• Smoking<br />• Obesity<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />The symptoms of pulmonary embolism vary in type and severity depending on the size and location of the blockage, and the area affected by the lack of blood. Symptoms may include: <br />• Shortness of breath that starts suddenly for no obvious reason<br />• Chest pain, especially when breathing or coughing. It can mimic a heart attack.<br />• Feeling faint, lightheaded, dizzy<br />• Cough, sometimes with bloody phlegm<br />• Rapid heartbeat<br />• Rapid breathing<br />• Anxiety<br />• Feeling of impending doom<br />• Swollen, distended neck veins<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. Tests may include:<br />Arterial Blood Gas Study—a blood test to identify oxygen levels and other gases that are indicators of lung function<br />Chest X-ray—a test that uses radiation to take a picture of structures inside the chest. A pulmonary embolism cannot be seen on the chest x-ray. Sometimes however it is associated with the lung infarct that can be visualized. <br />Lung Perfusion Scan—a test that uses radioactive isotopes to measure breathing and circulation in all areas of the lungs. The presence of an embolus will show as a mismatch between ventilation of the portion of the lung and its blood perfusion. <br />CT Scan of the Chest—a type of x-ray that uses a computer to make pictures of the inside of the chest. A spiral CT is a special type of a CT scan that is able to make tri-dimensional pictures. It is also a very fast scan that can be completed in a very short period of time. It has become highly popular in dignosisng pulmonary embolism. <br />Pulmonary Angiogram—x-rays taken after a dye is injected into the blood vessels in the lungs. The test shows areas of blockage in the lungs. It provides a clear picture of blood flow through the arteries but this test is associated with relatively high risks for a patient. <br />Electrocardiogram (ECG, EKG)—a test that records the heart's activity by measuring electrical currents through the heart muscle. In case of pulmonary embolism, tachycardia (rapid heart beat) is frequently seen as well as several rhythm patterns that can help in making the diagnosis. <br />Additional tests may be done to check blood flow or look for clots in the veins, especially in the legs.<br />Also, there are a few blood tests available that can help in making the diagnosis:<br />• D-Dimer—a clot dissolving substance. Increased levels in the blood may suggest the presence of the clot. It is unfortunately a nonspecific test and a lot of different conditions may cause (eg, recent surgery) it to be elevated. <br />If you have a family history of blood clots, and had a few instances of blood clots for no apparent reason, your doctor may order additional blood tests to look for possible inherited defects in your clotting system. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Treatment depends on the size and severity of the clot. Emergency treatment and hospitalization may be needed. <br />Treatments include:<br />Medicine<br />Options include: <br />• Thrombolytic medicine to dissolve clots, for example: <br />o Streptokinase<br />o Urokinase<br />o Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)<br />• Anticoagulant medicine, called blood thinners, such as heparin or warfarin, to prevent more clots from forming<br />Surgery<br />In some cases when the blockage is very large, a type of surgery called embolectomy may be done to remove it.<br />Clot-trapping Filter<br />If you have a repeated problem with blood clots, surgery may be performed to place a filter in the main vein that leads from the legs to the heart and lungs. This filter traps clots before they can reach the lungs. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />Prevention of pulmonary embolism means preventing clots from forming.<br />You can help prevent clots with a healthful lifestyle: <br />• Eat a healthful diet, one that is low in total fat as well as saturated fat, and rich in whole grains, legumes, fruits, and vegetables.<br />• Exercise regularly.<br />• Walk or move your legs to break up long periods of sitting.<br />• Don't smoke.<br />• Unless you are on a fluid-restricted diet, be sure to drink lots of water.<br />People at high risk of developing blood clots can do the following: <br />• Take medicine, if your doctor recommends it. Anticoagulant drugs such as warfarin or heparin are most commonly used.<br />• Wear elastic stockings (also called support hose) to improve circulation in your legs.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-21468690890383039022009-01-11T05:28:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:53:50.355-08:00Psoriasis<span style="font-weight:bold;">Psoriasis</span><br />Definition<br />Psoriasis is a chronic, inflammatory skin disease. Knees, elbows, scalp, trunk, and nails are the most commonly affected areas. There are several types of psoriasis. <br />• Plaque--inflamed patches of skin topped with silvery, white scales (most common type)<br />• Guttate--small dot-like lesions<br />• Pustular--weeping lesions and intense scaling<br />• Erythrodermic--intense sloughing and inflammation of the skin<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Psoriasis</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn0Ul_DarI/AAAAAAAAAqI/YHkULH3cjdg/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 391px; height: 254px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWn0Ul_DarI/AAAAAAAAAqI/YHkULH3cjdg/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290027871954496178" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />The cause of psoriasis is unclear. Signals from a defect in the immune system may result in an overgrowth of skin cells. Because the cells grow faster than they can be shed, they ‘pile up' on the skin's surface. The excess skin cells are thought to cause the silvery white scales that are characteristic of plaque-type psoriasis.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. <br />• Sex: Female<br />• Family history of psoriasis<br />• Rheumatoid arthritis<br />• Cold climates<br />• Suppression of the immune system, including AIDS<br />• Certain bacterial infections<br />• Certain medications, such as beta blockers and lithium<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />The red, thickened and rough patches of psoriasis may occur anywhere, but are commonly found on the scalp, elbows, knees, palms, and soles. Other symptoms include: <br />• Silvery white scales<br />• Pitted or dented fingernails and/or toenails<br />• Red lesion in the folds of the buttock <br />• Joint pain suggesting arthritis <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. Your skin and nails will be examined. There are no specific blood tests or diagnostic procedures for psoriasis. Sometimes a skin biopsy will be done to confirm the diagnosis.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Treatment is based on: <br />• The severity of the disease<br />• The extent and location of the areas involved<br />• Responsiveness to the treatment<br />Topical Treatment<br />Many patients respond very well to treatments applied directly to the skin. Topical treatments include: <br />• Corticosteroid creams (most common treatment)<br />• Synthetic forms of vitamin D and retinoids (calcipotriene ointment 0.005??)<br />• Retinoids (tazarotene gel 0.05 and 0.1%)<br />• Coal tar preparations <br />• Bath solutions and moisturizers<br />Photo (Light) Therapy<br />If psoriasis covers more than 30% of the body it is difficult to treat with topical medications alone. Daily, short, nonburning exposure to sunlight clears or improves psoriasis in many people. Sunlight is often included among initial treatments. A more controlled form of artificial light treatment (UVB phototherapy) is often used in more widespread but mild cases. More severe psoriasis can be treated with ultraviolet A (UVA light) and psoralen. Psoralen is an oral or topical medication that makes the body more sensitive to light. This treatment is known as PUVA.<br />Phototherapy can be very effective in controlling psoriasis but it requires frequent treatments. It may cause side effects such as nausea, headache, fatigue, burning, and itching. Both UVB and PUVA may increase the person's risk for squamous cell and, possibly, melanoma skin cancers.<br />Systemic Treatment<br />For more severe types of psoriasis, doctors may prescribe a number of other powerful medications, which can be effective, but are associated with more serious side effects. These include: <br />• Methotrexate--should not be taken by pregnant women, women planning to become pregnant, or by their male partners.<br />• Cyclosporine--suppresses the immune system to slow the turnover of skin cells.<br />• Hydroxyurea--less toxic than methotrexate or cyclosporine, but may less effective.<br />• Systemic Retinoids--compounds with vitamin A-like properties taken internally (such as methotrexate) may be prescribed in severe cases. Retinoids can cause birth defects and women must diligently protect themselves from pregnancy for several years after completing treatment.<br />Newer systemic immunomodulators, so called because they affect some aspect of the body’s natural immune response, may also be quite effective. These treatments are generally the most expensive, however, and some can cause serious toxicity when given systemically (by mouth or injection). Topical preparations of immunomodulators are currently being tested and seem to have benefits. Other drugs called thiazolidinediones may show promise as future treatments for psoriasis but are not currently recommended. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />Although the condition of psoriasis cannot be prevented, people at increased risk for the condition (ie, family history of psoriasis) should try to avoid physical trauma to the skin, infections, and temperature extremes. <br />These measures may also help reduce flare-ups in people with the condition. Your doctor may advise you to avoid certain foods if they appear to make your psoriasis worse.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-53033875976333375222009-01-11T05:26:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:54:07.062-08:00Prostitis<span style="font-weight:bold;">Prostatitis</span><br />(Prostadynia)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />Prostatitis is inflammation of the prostate gland. The prostate is a walnut-sized gland in men that surrounds the urethra. The prostate produces a fluid that is part of semen.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Anatomy of the Prostate Gland</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnz0rVufgI/AAAAAAAAAqA/RG9aMYgFEy0/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 391px; height: 255px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnz0rVufgI/AAAAAAAAAqA/RG9aMYgFEy0/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290027323635957250" /></a> <br />There are four types of prostatitis: <br />• Acute bacterial (least common of the four types, but the most common in men under 35)<br />• Asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis<br />• Chronic bacterial (not very common, but affects mostly men between 40-70)<br />• Chronic nonbacterial/prostadynia (most common type)<br />o Note: Prostadynia (also known as chronic pelvic pain syndrome) is a condition associated with similar symptoms as chronic nonbacterial prostatitis, but which has no evidence of prostatic inflammation.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />Acute and some chronic bacterial prostatitis are caused by bacteria that infect the prostate gland. The bacteria usually come from the urinary tract or rectum. The causes of nonbacterial prostatitis can be difficult to identify, but some feel this may be caused by nonbacterial pathogens such as chlamydia, virus, fungus, or mycoplasma. The causes of prostatodynia can be even more difficult to identify, but can be associated with stress and/or disorders of pelvic floor muscle tension. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. Risk factors include: <br />• Medical procedures that involve inserting a catheter or other tubing into your urethra or rectum<br />• Engaging in anal intercourse<br />• Recent bladder infection<br />• Abnormalities in the anatomy of the urinary tract<br />• Diabetes<br />• Suppressed immune system<br />• Bladder outlet obstruction (eg, a tumor, a kidney stone, or enlargement of the prostate gland itself)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />Symptoms of prostatitis can come on slowly or suddenly. They can be mild or quite severe. In nonbacterial prostatitis, symptoms often come and go.<br />Symptoms may include: <br />• Needing to urinate frequently and/or urgently (especially at night)<br />• Pain or burning while urinating<br />• Difficulty urinating<br />• Blood in the urine<br />• Psychological stress<br />• Lower abdominal pain or pressure<br />• Rectal or perineal discomfort<br />• Lower back pain<br />• Fever or chills<br />• Painful ejaculation<br />• Impotence (due to inflammation around the gland)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. Diagnosis of prostatitis is usually based on the symptoms and massaging the prostate gland. In this test, the doctor places a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum to feel the back wall of the prostate. In prostatitis, the prostate is usually tender and soft. <br />Other tests may include: <br />• Analysis of urine and prostate fluid expressed after massaging the prostate gland<br />• Bladder function tests<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Treatment depends on the type of prostatitis:<br />Infectious Prostatitis<br />Acute bacterial prostatitis is treated with oral antibiotics for 1-2 weeks.The commonly used drugs include quinolones (norfloxacin, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin) or trimethoprim. In severe cases, treatment with intravenous antibiotics may be necessary. Chronic bacterial prostatitis is also treated with oral antibiotics for 4-12 weeks. Other medications include: <br />• Stool softeners<br />• Anti-inflammatory medications<br />• Other analgesics or pain medications<br />• Avoiding alcohol or caffeinated beverages<br />• Alpha-blockers such as Flomax<br />• 5-alpha reductase inhibitors such as Proscar or Avodart <br />Non-infectious Prostatitis<br />Often patients are initially given a course of antibiotics. This is just in case an infectious cause was missed. Other treatments include: <br />• Alpha-blockers such as Flomax<br />• 5-alpha reductase inhibitors such as Proscar or Avodart <br />• Anti-inflammatory medications such as ibuprofen<br />• Pain killers<br />• Warm sitz baths <br />• Repeated prostate massages<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />There are no guidelines for preventing prostatitis.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-62729766181560206182009-01-11T05:24:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:54:23.836-08:00Prostate Cancer<span style="font-weight:bold;">Prostate Cancer</span><br />(Cancer of the Prostate)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />Prostate cancer is a disease in which cancer cells grow in the prostate gland. The prostate is a walnut-sized gland in men that surrounds the urethra. The prostate produces a fluid that is part of semen.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prostate Cancer</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnze1xGvVI/AAAAAAAAAp4/FAkhcnQKfBA/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 391px; height: 255px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnze1xGvVI/AAAAAAAAAp4/FAkhcnQKfBA/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290026948478025042" /></a> <br />Cancer occurs when cells in the body (in this case prostate cells) divide without control or order. Normally, cells divide in a regulated manner. If cells keep dividing uncontrollably when new cells are not needed, a mass of tissue forms, called a growth or tumor. The term cancer refers to malignant tumors, which can invade nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body. A benign tumor does not invade or spread. <br />The sooner prostate cancer is treated, the more favorable the outcome. If you suspect your might have this condition, contact your doctor immediately. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />The cause of prostate cancer is unknown. However, research shows that certain risk factors are associated with the disease. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. <br />The following factors increase your chance of developing prostate cancer:<br />• Age: 55 or older<br />• Race: Black<br />• Family history of prostate cancer, especially father or brother<br />• Family history of prostate cancer diagnosed at a young age<br />• A high-fat diet<br />Symptoms<br />• A need to urinate frequently, especially at night<br />• Difficulty starting urination or holding back urine<br />• Inability to urinate<br />• Weak or interrupted flow of urine<br />• Painful or burning urination<br />• Difficulty having an erection<br />• Painful ejaculation<br />• Blood in urine or semen<br />• Frequent pain or stiffness in the lower back, hips, or upper thighs<br />These symptoms may also be caused by other, less serious health conditions, such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) or an infection. A man experiencing these symptoms should see a doctor.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />Your doctor will ask about symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. Tests may include: <br />• Digital Rectal Exam–examination of the rectum with the doctor's gloved finger inserted into your rectum<br />• Urine Test–to check for blood or infection<br />• Blood Test–to measure prostate specific antigen (PSA) and prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP)<br />Other tests to learn more about the cause of your symptoms may include:<br />Transrectal Ultrasonography–a test that uses sound waves and a probe inserted into the rectum to find tumors<br />Intravenous Pyelogram–series of x-rays of the organs of the urinary tract<br />Cystoscopy–a procedure in which a doctor looks into the urethra and bladder through a thin, lighted tube<br />Biopsy–removal of a sample of prostate tissue to test for cancer cells<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Once prostate cancer is found, tests are performed to find out if the cancer has spread and, if so, to what extent. Treatment depends on the extent of the cancer. To understand your treatment options, you may want to consult with a urologist and a radiation oncologist for help deciding what is the best treatment plan for you. It is important to discuss your individual benefits and risks associated with each treatment option with your doctors. For some treatments, the expense and risks associated with the treatment may not outweigh the benefits.<br />Standard treatment options include:<br />Watchful Waiting <br />Watchful waiting involves no treatment, but your doctor tests periodically to see if the cancer is growing. Watchful waiting is suggested for:: <br />• Early stage prostate cancer that seems to be growing slowly<br />• Older prostate cancer patients or those with serious medical problems that may make the risks of treatment outweigh the possible benefits<br />Surgery <br />Surgery for prostate cancer involves the removal of the cancerous tumor and nearby tissues, and possibly nearby lymph nodes. Surgery is generally offered to patients who are in good health and are younger than 70 years old. Types of surgery include:<br />• Pelvic Lymphadenectomy–removal of lymph nodes in the pelvis to determine if they contain cancer; if they do, removal of the prostate and other treatment may be recommended<br />• Radical Retropubic Prostatectomy–removal of the entire prostate and nearby lymph nodes through an incision in the abdomen<br />• Radical Perineal Prostatectomy–removal of the entire prostate through an incision between the scrotum and the anus; nearby lymph nodes are sometimes removed through a separate incision in the abdomen<br />• Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP)–removal of part of the prostate with an instrument inserted through the urethra; a TURP is not a cancer surgery, but can be used to relieve the symptoms of obstruction when a patient has either prostate cancer or an enlarged gland due to other reasons<br />Prostate cancer surgery can result in impotence and leakage of urine from the bladder or stool from the rectum. Nerve-sparing surgery may reduce these risks, but very large tumors or tumors that are very close to nerves may not be treatable with nerve-sparing surgery.<br />In addition to traditional surgery, robotic surgery and laparascopic surgery may be options in your community. These minimally invasive techniques can help reduce side effects, blood loss, and recovery time over traditional “open” surgery.<br />Radiation Therapy<br />Radiation therapy involves the use of radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may be:<br />• External Radiation Therapy–radiation directed at the tumor from a source outside the body<br />• Internal Radiation Therapy–dozens of tiny radioactive seeds are implanted directly into the prostate gland using needles; the seeds remain in the prostate gland permanently and harmlessly; this method delivers radiation directly to the affected area, and reduces the risk of damage to surrounding areas such as the rectum and bladder; internal radiation therapy is most often used for treating earlier stage cancers<br />Radiation therapy for prostate cancer may result in impotence and urinary problems. However, most studies show that rates of impotence are less for radiation therapy than for standard prostatectomy and slightly less than that for nerve-sparing procedures. Incontinence following radiation therapy is also less than following prostatectomy, but there is a slightly increased risk of cystitis due to radiation.<br />Hormone Therapy<br />Hormone therapy is often used for patients whose prostate cancer has spread beyond the prostate or has recurred after treatment. The goal of hormone therapy is to lower levels of the male hormones, also known as androgens. The main androgen is testosterone. Lowering androgen levels can cause prostate cancers to shrink or grow more slowly, but does not cure cancer. Methods of hormone therapy include:<br />• Orchiectomy–a surgical procedure to remove one or both of the testicles, which are the main source of male hormones; orchiectomy decreases hormone production, which can shrink or slow the growth of most prostate cancers <br />• Luteinizing Hormone-releasing Hormone (LHRH) Agonists–injections that can decrease the amount of testosterone produced by the testicles <br />• Antiandrogens (eg, flutamide, bicalutamide)–medications that can block the action of androgens; these medications are often used in combination with orchiectomy or LHRH agonists, a combination called total androgen blockade<br />• Drugs That Prevent Adrenal Glands From Producing Androgens (eg, ketoconazole, aminoglutethimide)<br />• Estrogens–drugs that can prevent the production of testosterone in the testicles; estrogens are rarely used today because of the risk of serious side effects<br />Hormone therapy for prostate cancer may result in hot flashes, impaired sexual function, loss of sexual desire, and weakened bones.<br />Other Treatment Options<br />In addition to standard treatments, other treatments are being investigated in clinical trials. Patients may want to consider taking part in a clinical trial when weighing treatment options. The treatments that are currently being tested include:<br />Cryosurgery<br />Cryosurgery uses an instrument to freeze and destroy prostate cancer cells.<br />Chemotherapy<br />Chemotherapy is the use of drugs to kill cancer cells. It may be given in many forms, including: pill, injection, and via a catheter. The drugs enter the bloodstream and travel through the body, killing mostly cancer cells, but also some healthy cells. Since chemotherapy in the treatment of prostate cancer is still being investigated, it is not clear whether it can prolong survival in men with prostate cancer.<br />Biological Therapy<br />Biological therapy is the use of medications or substances made by the body to increase or restore the body’s natural defenses against cancer. It is also called biological response modifier (BRM) therapy.<br />High-intensity Focused Ultrasound<br />This treatment uses an endorectal probe that produces ultrasound (high-energy sound waves), which can destroy cancer cells. <br />Conformal Radiation Therapy<br />Conformal radiation therapy uses three-dimensional radiation beams that are conformed into the shape of the diseased prostate. This treatment spares nearby tissue the damaging effects of radiation.<br />Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT)<br />IMRT uses radiation beams of different intensities to deliver higher doses of radiation therapy to the tumor and lower doses to nearby tissues at the same time.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />Beginning at age 50, men should be offered a digital rectal exam and PSA blood test to screen for prostate cancer. Many, but not all professional organizations, recommend a yearly PSA blood test for men over age 50 to screen for prostate cancer. Black men and men with close family members who have had prostate cancer diagnosed at a young age should begin screening at age 45. All men should discuss PSA testing with their physician.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-4637863423167514462009-01-11T05:22:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:54:40.837-08:00Primary Pulmonary Hypertension<span style="font-weight:bold;">Primary Pulmonary Hypertension</span><br />(PPH, Unexplained Pulmonary Hypertension, Idiopathic Pulmonary Hypertension, Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension, Sporadic Primary Pulmonary Hypertension, Familial Primary Pulmonary Hypertension)<br />Pronounced: PRY-mair-ee PUL-mo-nair-ee hi-per-TEN-shun<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />Primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH) is a rare disease that causes high blood pressure in the blood vessels of the lungs. A person with PPH has extra muscle in the walls of those blood vessels. That extra muscle makes it more difficult for blood to flow through them. So, the right side of the heart, which pumps blood to the lungs, has to work harder. This additional strain can eventually lead to heart failure. <br />PPH is a serious condition that requires care from your doctor.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Heart and Lungs</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWny_NJD8xI/AAAAAAAAApw/rHiIo-wn068/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 296px; height: 400px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWny_NJD8xI/AAAAAAAAApw/rHiIo-wn068/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290026404996707090" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />The cause of PPH is unknown, but several factors may contribute to the development of the disease, including: <br />• Immune system disease<br />• Exposure to certain drugs or chemicals<br />• Genetic defects<br />Risk Factors<br />A risk factor is something that increases your chances of getting a disease or condition. The following factors increase your chances of developing PPH: <br />• Female between the ages of 20 and 40<br />• Family history of PPH<br />• Use of appetite suppressants – diet drugs<br />• Cocaine use<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />Initial symptoms of PPH may be minor, and will get progressively worse. If you experience any of these symptoms do not assume it is due to PPH. These symptoms may be caused by other, less serious health conditions. If you experience any one of them, see your physician. <br />• Shortness of breath, especially when you’re active<br />• Hyperventilation – abnormally rapid, deep breathing<br />• Fatigue – tiredness<br />• Progressive weakness<br />• Fainting spells<br />• Light-headedness during exercise<br />• Dizziness<br />• Coughing up blood<br />• Cyanosis – a bluish tint to the lips and skin<br />• Swelling of the legs and hands<br />• Chest pain<br />A physical exam by your doctor may show: <br />• Swelling of the veins in your neck<br />• Enlarged liver<br />• A heart murmur – an abnormal sound in the heart <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />Diagnosis of PPH may be delayed because it is hard to detect until symptoms worsen. Evaluation should take place at a medical center with expertise in pulmonary hypertension.<br />Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. Tests may include the following: <br />• Electrocardiogram (ECG, EKG) – a test that records the heart’s activity by measuring electrical currents through the heart muscle. <br />• Chest x-ray – a test that uses radiation to take a picture of structures inside the body. A chest x-ray can show if the heart is enlarged. <br />• CT scan of the chest – a type of x-ray that uses a computer to make pictures of structures inside the chest.<br />• Echocardiogram – a test that uses high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound) to examine the size, shape and motion of the heart. <br />• Pulmonary function tests – non-invasive tests, like blowing into a tube, that measure how well your lungs are working.<br />• Cardiac catheterization – a tube-like instrument inserted into the heart through a vein or artery (usually in the arm or leg) to detect problems with the heart and its blood supply. <br />• Pulmonary arteriogram – a type of x-ray that takes pictures of the blood vessels in the lungs, to detect blood clots and other blockages.<br />• Nuclear lung scan – a special camera takes pictures of the lungs, to look for blockages in the blood vessels.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />There is no cure for PPH. Treatment is used to help alleviate and control the symptoms. Talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. Treatment options include the following:<br />Medication<br />Calcium channel-blocking drugs – to relax the muscles in the blood vessels in the lungs<br />Anticoagulants – to decrease the chance of blood clots in the lungs<br />Diuretics – to reduce the amount of fluid in the body and in turn reduce strain on the heart<br />Vasodilators – to help reduce blood pressure in the blood vessels in the lungs<br />Supplemental oxygen<br />Delivered through a mask or tubes inserted into the nostrils, if breathing becomes difficult<br />Lung transplant or heart-lung transplant<br />Defective lungs and/or heart are replaced with donor organs. This option is used only in severe cases of PPH.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />There are no guidelines for preventing PPH because the cause is not known.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-83611336828461529212009-01-11T05:21:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:54:59.965-08:00Polycythemia<span style="font-weight:bold;">Primary Polycythemia</span><br />(Polycythemia Vera (PCV), Polycythemia Rubra Vera (PRV), Erythremia) <br />Pronounced: pol-ee-si-thee-me-a <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition </span><br />Polycythemia is a condition that occurs when the bone marrow produces an abnormal and excessive amount of red blood cells and platelets in the blood. The abnormal increase of red blood cells in the blood can cause the blood to thicken and clot. <br />There are several forms of polycythemia—primary polycythemia, secondary polycythemia, and stress polycythemia—and each form has its own set of causes and risk factors. <br />Primary polycythemia is a serious and chronic condition that requires immediate care from your doctor. No cures exist for this condition, but there are treatment options. It is extremely important that you seek medical attention to establish a treatment plan. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Location of Active Bone Marrow in an Adult</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnyhAdY7MI/AAAAAAAAApo/t22kHMVRrZ4/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 390px; height: 254px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnyhAdY7MI/AAAAAAAAApo/t22kHMVRrZ4/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290025886196231362" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes </span><br />The precise cause of primary polycythemia is unknown. There are no apparent genetic or environmental factors that can be attributed to causing primary polycythemia. <br />Risk Factors <br />A risk factor is something that increases your chances of getting a disease or condition. The following factors will increase your chances of developing primary polycythemia: <br />• Sex: Male. Men are twice as likely to be affected as women <br />• Age: Individuals over the age of 40 years old are far more likely to be affected; only very rarely are individuals under the age of 40 diagnosed with primary polycythemia<br />• Race: Caucasians are more likely to develop primary polycythemia than non-Caucasians<br />• A history of abnormal or increased production of platelets in the blood <br />• A history of an overall increase in the total number of red blood cells in the blood <br />• A history of blood clotting or thickening of the blood in the veins and major arteries <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms </span><br />The symptoms of primary polycythemia occur gradually and vary from person to person. Some people are asymptomatic (showing no signs of the condition) while others are symptomatic (showing signs of the condition). If you experience any of the following symptoms, do not assume it is due to primary polycythemia. These symptoms may be caused by other, less serious health conditions. If you experience any one of them, see your physician. <br />• Abnormal and heavy bleeding due to a cut or a nosebleed <br />• Intense and frequent bone pain and/or muscle pain <br />• Headaches <br />• Difficulty or labored breathing <br />• The color of the skin appears reddish <br />• Fatigue (a state of weariness following a period of mental or physical activity) <br />• Inability to concentrate <br />• Intense itching after a warm or hot bath, shower, or any activity that requires soaking your skin in warm or hot water. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis </span><br />Your physician will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. You may also be referred to a doctor who specializes in blood diseases and disorders (called a hematologist). The hematologist will perform a series (a set) of tests that may include: <br />• A complete blood count (CBC) test to measure your hematocrit level (the proportion of red blood cells in the blood). <br />• A bone marrow biopsy (where a hollow-needle is inserted into your pelvic bone to remove a sample of your bone marrow cells) is performed to determine the rate at which the bone marrow is overproducing red blood cells. This test is also used to help determine what type of medication and other treatment options will slow the production of red blood cell in the bone marrow. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span> <br />Talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. Treatment options include the following: <br />Phlebotomy<br />Phlebotomy is a technique that requires a person to periodically have blood removed from a vein to decrease the overall total proportion of red blood cells in the body. The frequency of the treatment is based on how quickly a person’s bone marrow produces an excessive amount of red blood cells. <br />Myelosuppressive Agents <br />Myelosuppressive agents are drugs taken orally (by mouth) to block or interfere with the formation of new cells. These drugs reduce bone morrow production of cells to decrease platelets and the overall proportion of red blood cells in the body. <br />Chemotherapy <br />Chemotherapy is a group of drugs that can be given orally (by mouth), by injection, or through a catheter (tubular device that is inserted into a duct or blood vessel) to slow the rapid development of red blood cells in the bone marrow. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention </span><br />There are no known preventative measures that will reduce your chances of getting primary polycythemia. Primary polycythemia is not contagious. There is no cure for primary polycythemia. Recent research suggests that individuals who have primary polycythemia may significantly increase their overall life expectancy by seeking immediate and timely treatment for their condition.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-69971196911293629572009-01-11T05:18:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:55:17.757-08:00Pressure Sores<span style="font-weight:bold;">Pressure Sores</span><br />(Pressure Ulcers; Bed Sores; Decubitus Ulcers)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />A pressure sore is a lesion that develops on the skin and underlying tissues due to unrelieved pressure usually over a bony prominence. The skin and tissues rely on an adequate blood supply for oxygen and nutrients. When tissues are compressed for an extended period from hours to days, blood supply can be cut off, leading to development of a sore.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Pressure Sore (Skin Ulceration)</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnx_gGa0fI/AAAAAAAAApg/Z2Lz3GBINTY/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 390px; height: 255px;" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnx_gGa0fI/AAAAAAAAApg/Z2Lz3GBINTY/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290025310574268914" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />Pressure sores result from lying or sitting in one position for too long a time. Prolonged pressure cuts off the blood supply to tissues that are compressed between a bony area and a mattress, chair, or other object. Without oxygen and nutrients, the tissue starts to die.<br />Several factors contribute to the development of pressure sores including: <br />• Pressure - Inability to change position or to feel discomfort caused by pressure (People with normal mobility and sensation change position automatically, without thinking.)<br />• Friction – Even friction from pulling someone across bed sheets can damage small blood vessels that supply the skin tissue.<br />• Poor nutrition<br />• Moisture – From sweating due to an elevated temperature (fever) or leakage of urine or stool.<br />• Obesity – Extra weight increases pressure on the skin over the bones and joints.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. <br />• Immobility, such as being bed- or chair-bound<br />• Sensory loss<br />• Poor nutrition<br />• Incontinence, or leakage of urine or stool<br />• Advanced age<br />• Chronic or complex medical problems, such as: <br />o Anemia<br />o Infection<br />o Poor circulation<br />o Dementia<br />o Cancer<br />o Diabetes<br />o Stroke<br />o Spinal cord injury or paralysis<br />• Bone fracture<br />• Swelling or water retention<br />• Dry skin<br />• Fever <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />Symptoms of a pressure ulcer may include: <br />• Skin tissue that feels firm or boggy<br />• Local redness, warmth, tenderness or swelling<br />• Redish or purplish skin discoloration, often over a bony area<br />• Pain or itching of the skin<br />• Blistering, sores, skin breakdown or drainage<br />If the redness remains a half hour after the pressure has been removed, the skin will likely break down. The reddened area may blister and a shallow ulcer may develop. Fluid may drain. The wound can deepen and can extend through fat and muscle to the bone. The area may be painful. The wound can become infected, with redness, swelling, odor, pus, warmth and fever. If untreated, the infection can progress to gangrene, a blood infection, or an infection of the bone beneath.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. The doctor will examine the ulcer and note the location, shape, size, depth, stage, and any formation of pockets or cavities. Pressure sores are staged according to the depth and tissues that are involved.<br />Tests may include: <br />• Wound Culture – taking a sample of material from a sore to be tested for bacteria <br />• Blood tests – to check for infection and nutritional status<br />• X-ray or Bone Scan – if bone infection is suspected<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Treatment aims to relieve pressure on the area, heal the wound, avoid complications, and prevent future pressure sores. In many cases, a caregiver will provide care for your pressure sores.<br />Treatment includes:<br />Positioning<br />• Avoid placing any weight or pressure on the wound.<br />• Change position at least every two hours, around the clock.<br />• Maintain good body alignment.<br />• Make sure bedclothes are clean and without wrinkles.<br />• You may need a special mattress.<br />• Use a “lift sheet” to move the patient rather than pull the bedsheet or the patient to move them. <br />Hygiene<br />Clean soiled skin after each bowel movement and urination. Wash with mild soap and warm water. Rinse well. Pat dry. Do not rub. Apply lotion as recommended by the doctor.<br />Wound Care<br />A nurse or doctor will teach you or your caregiver how to tend to the wound. Some basic instructions include: <br />• Clean the sore, remove dead tissue, and apply a dressing.<br />• Do not put anything else on the ulcer.<br />• Wash hands before and after performing wound care.<br />• Clean the wound every time the bandage is changed.<br />• You may need to take pain medication a half hour or hour before dressing changes.<br />Nutrition<br />Eat well-balanced meals. Your doctor may recommend vitamins, minerals or supplements.<br />Surgery and Other Procedures<br />The doctor may surgically remove dead tissue and skin grafts may be needed. In some situations, electrotherapy may be used to stimulate blood flow and promote healing.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />Most pressure ulcers can be prevented. Suggestions include: <br />• Repositioning <br />o Change position in bed at least every 2 hours or, in a wheelchair, at least hourly. If able to move yourself, shift position every 15 minutes.<br />o Maintain good body alignment.<br />o Do not elevate head of bed greater than 30 degrees, to prevent sliding.<br />o Find a sitting or lying position that is 30 degrees toward one side or the other, but not squarely on the hip.<br />o Place a pillow under calves, to keep the heels off the mattress.<br />o Place a pillow between the knees.<br />o Do not use donut-ring cushions, which can cut off circulation.<br />• Use a special bed mattress or wheelchair cushion.<br />• Wear special pads to protect skin that is resting against braces and other devices.<br />• When moving someone, lift rather than drag. <br />o Use assistive devices, such as transfer boards and mechanical lifts.<br />o Try placing a sheepskin under a body part to decrease friction.<br />• Keep the skin clean and dry.<br />• Do not massage bony areas.<br />• If incontinent, use a protective cream on skin that may come in contact with urine or stool. Frequently check the patient and do not let feces or urine remain for extended periods of time<br />• Check the skin at least daily for signs of pressure problems.<br />• Keep sheets clean and free of wrinkles<br />• Maintain good nutrition.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-47830873319101094562009-01-11T05:16:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:55:32.762-08:00Presbyopia<span style="font-weight:bold;">Presbyopia</span><br />Pronounced: Prez-bee-OH-pee-ah<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />Presbyopia is the inability to focus on and clearly see objects that are close by.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />Presbyopia is caused by an age-related, gradual loss of flexibility within the lens of the eye. Because the lens is less elastic, it cannot adequately change its shape to sharply focus on objects close by.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Anatomy of the Eye</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnxgWyhjfI/AAAAAAAAApY/ebMViQz4xz0/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 390px; height: 280px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnxgWyhjfI/AAAAAAAAApY/ebMViQz4xz0/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290024775498960370" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. <br />Risk factors for presbyopia include:<br />• Age: over 40 years old<br />• Family members with early onset presbyopia<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />Symptoms include: <br />• Having to hold items further away (at arm's length) to focus on them<br />• Blurred vision when reading close up<br />• Eye fatigue, discomfort, or drowsiness when doing close-up work such as: <br />o Reading<br />o Needlepoint<br />o Computer work<br />• Symptoms often made worse by over-tiredness or stress<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />A vision specialist will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform an eye exam. You will be asked to read materials at a distance that is typically comfortable while the doctor places different lenses in front of your eyes. This test determines the extent of your presbyopia.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Presbyopia is usually treated with corrective lenses. Lens options include:<br />Glasses<br />If you already wear glasses, you may need a second set for reading and other close-up activities. Bifocals combine two prescriptions into one pair of glasses. The upper half of bifocals corrects distance vision and the bottom half corrects close-up vision. Trifocals are similar to bifocals, except that they have a medium range lens between the distance and near portions to help with intermediate vision tasks.<br />Another option is progressive lenses, which provide a gradual increase in reading prescription as you look down on the lens. This provides a range of correction for you to use depending on the distance between you and the object you are trying to look at. If you currently do not need vision correction for distance, then you will only need a pair of glasses to correct your up-close vision. However, some people with perfect distance vision still opt to wear bifocals that are clear on top and have the reading prescription on the bottom so that they can wear them all the time rather than having to put glasses on and off to read.<br />Contact Lenses<br />Bifocal contact lenses are available and act the same way as bifocal glasses, with an area for distance and an area for near vision correction. Another option is monovision contact lenses. One eye wears a lens to correct distance vision and the other to correct up-close vision.<br />Reading Glasses<br />If you do not need glasses for distance, you can sometimes buy reading glasses without a prescription. These are typically available in drug stores, discount stores, and vision centers. They are made in increments of .25 magnification. The typical range of correction needed is from +1.00 to + 3.00. However, even if you use these glasses, it is still important for you to get a comprehensive eye examination regularly. Also, these glasses are not custom made to correct for the specific distance between your eyes. While they work well for the “average” person, they may not work well for you. If you feel uncomfortable while wearing over-the-counter reading glasses, be sure to see your eye doctor.<br />Conductive Keratoplasty<br />Conductive keratoplasty (CK) is a procedure performed by an ophthalmologist to correct presbyopia in one eye. The surgeon places a small probe that emits radiofrequency energy into the cornea to reshape it. This is performed in one eye only, so that the other eye is dominant for distance vision and the eye receiving the CK is focused for near vision.<br />Multifocal Intraocular Lenses<br />Multifocal intraocular lenses can be placed inside the eye in place of the eye’s natural lens. This is typically performed at the time of cataract surgery. The multifocal lens focuses on both distant and near objects simultaneously, often eliminating the need for glasses. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />Presbyopia is thought to be an inevitable part of the aging process. Currently, there are no guidelines for preventing it or delaying its onset.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-54109121639886839572009-01-11T05:14:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:55:47.665-08:00Presbycusis<span style="font-weight:bold;">Presbycusis</span><br />(Presbyacusis, Age-Related Hearing Loss, Presbyacusia)<br />Pronounced: Pres-bih-CUE-sis<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />Presbycusis is gradual hearing loss in both ears that commonly occurs as people age. Nearly half of all people 75 years and older have this form of gradual hearing loss which can be mild, moderate, or severe. Presbycusis usually involves permanent hearing loss sometimes referred to as ‘nerve deafness.’ Certain medical problems can also lead to hearing loss. If you suspect you have presbycusis, contact your doctor.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">The Ear</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnxCyPvMHI/AAAAAAAAApQ/sREO6JR2iYk/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 391px; height: 255px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnxCyPvMHI/AAAAAAAAApQ/sREO6JR2iYk/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290024267473170546" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />There are several causes of presybcusis including: <br />• Gradual degeneration of the eardrum or delicate structures within the inner ear (hair cells) due to age<br />• Changes in the hearing nerve pathways in the ear leading to the brain<br />• Repeated exposure to loud sounds, music, or equipment which can damage the fragile hair cells within the inner ear involved in hearing<br />• Hereditary or genetic influences<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition.<br />The following factors increase your chances of developing presbycusis: <br />• Family history of gradual hearing loss with advancing age<br />• Use of certain medications, including aspirin and some antibiotics and cancer medications<br />• Certain health conditions, including cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure , diabetes , and other circulatory problems <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />If you experience any of these symptoms do not assume it is due to presbycusis. These symptoms may be caused by other health conditions. If you experience any one of them, see your physician. <br />• Noticeable loss of hearing of higher-pitched sounds, such as female voices, telephone ringing, or bird calls<br />• Sounds appear less clear and sharp<br />• Difficulty understanding conversations, particularly in noisy places or while speaking on the telephone<br />• Ringing in one or both ears, a condition called tinnitus<br />• Background sounds appear overly loud or bothersome<br />• Ear fullness with or without dizziness<br />With presbycusis, hearing loss is usually very gradual, affecting both ears equally.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam of your ear canal and eardrum with a lighted instrument called an otoscope. You will probably need to see a specialist, including an otolaryngologist, a doctor specially trained in disorders of the ear, nose, and throat. You may also see an audiologist who can do a complete hearing evaluation to determine the extent of hearing loss. Your primary care doctor can help refer you to an otolaryngologist who often works in association with an audiologist.<br />Tests may include the following: <br />• Rinne Test --involves a vibrating tuning fork placed on the bone behind your ear to test for hearing loss <br />• Weber Test --a tuning fork is placed on the forehead to determine one-sided hearing loss <br />• Audiometry --wearing headphones and listening for different tones of various pitch and loudness <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. Treatment options include the following:<br />Hearing Aids and Assistive Listening Devices<br />If it is determined that a hearing aid may be useful, the audiologist will conduct several tests to determine the type of hearing aid that will best improve hearing of speech. The extent of benefit varies according to the cause and degree of hearing loss. Sometimes hearing aids will need to be replaced with other models if hearing loss progresses. Some people with presbycusis may benefit from telephone amplifiers that help hear speech on the telephone.<br />Cochlear Implants<br />For certain people with very severe hearing loss that is not improved by a simple hearing aid, a cochlear implant device may improve sound generation to the brain. It may provide partial hearing to the profoundly deaf.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />To help reduce your chances of developing presbycusis, take the following steps: <br />• Avoid repeated exposure to loud noises and sounds of any type, including those at work, home, and during recreation<br />• When working with loud machinery or in loud environments, wear protective ear plugs or ear muffsLUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-19368563698374355812009-01-11T05:12:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:56:00.295-08:00Premature Ventricular Contractions<span style="font-weight:bold;">Premature Ventricular Beats</span><br />(Ventricular Premature Beats, Premature Ventricular Contractions, Ventricular Ectopic Beats)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />A premature ventricular beat (PVB) is an extra heartbeat caused by abnormal electrical activity that starts in the ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart) before a normal heartbeat occurs. This type of beat may not be as effective in pumping blood as a normal heartbeat. Because the PVB interferes with the heart’s normal rhythm and there is a pause before the next heartbeat, it may feel like a heartbeat is skipped.<br />PVBs are common, especially among the elderly. They can occur in people who are healthy, in which case they are harmless. However, when they occur after a heart attack or heart surgery they can lead to dangerous heart rhythms, which in some cases can cause sudden death. You should contact your doctor right away if you have PVBs after a heart attack or heart surgery. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Anatomy of the Heart</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnwocviefI/AAAAAAAAApI/Wv2r2i8gGp8/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 391px; height: 255px;" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnwocviefI/AAAAAAAAApI/Wv2r2i8gGp8/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290023815024376306" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />The causes of PVBs include: <br />• Physical or emotional stress<br />• Physical exercise<br />• Caffeine, alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (eg, cocaine, amphetamines)<br />• Certain medications, especially those that stimulate the heart<br />• Heart disease: <br />o Heart attack<br />o Coronary artery disease<br />o Disorders that cause the ventricles to get larger (eg, heart failure ) <br />o Heart valve disorders<br />o Congenital heart disease<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition.<br />The following factors increase your chance of developing PVBs: <br />• Age: Frequency increases with age; PVBs are most common in the elderly<br />• Sex: More common in men than women<br />• Race: African Americans have a much higher risk than white people<br />• Heart disease<br />• Use of caffeine, alcohol, tobacco, or other drugs<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />In many cases, there are no symptoms. When symptoms do occur they can include: <br />• Feeling the heart beating (palpitations)<br />• Feeling of a skipped or missed heart beat<br />In people with heart disease, PVBs can cause decreased blood flow from the heart to other parts of the body. This can produce dizziness and fainting.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. If you have heart disease, you should see a cardiologist.<br />Tests may include: <br />• Lab Tests : <br />o For electrolyte levels, especially potassium and magnesium<br />o For medication levels in people taking medication that may affect heart rhythms<br />• Electrocardiogram (ECG –shows the electrical activity of the heart rhythm and rate <br />• Continuous Cardiac Monitoring (eg, Ambulatory or Holter Monitoring) –this may be used if you have symptoms but heart rhythm disturbance does not show up on an ECG; this type of monitoring is helpful because it measures heart activity over a longer period of time (eg, 24 hours) <br />• Echocardiogram –shows an image and function of heart structures using ultrasound (high-frequency sound waves) <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />In most cases, no treatment is needed. However, it can be helpful to reduce stress and avoid caffeine, alcohol, and tobacco. If a medication you are taking may be causing the PVBs, talk with your doctor about whether you should reduce the dose or change medications.<br />You may need to take medication to control the PVBs if you have significant symptoms from PVBs, if you have heart disease, or if the pattern of the PVBs indicates a risk of developing more serious heart rhythm problems. Beta-blockers are generally tried first since they are relatively safe medications. Antiarrhythmic drugs may be used, but they may also increase the chances of developing dangerous heart rhythms. Other medications that may be used include calcium channel blockers. Talk with your doctor about the best treatment for you.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />To help reduce your chances of having PVBs: <br />• If you smoke, quit<br />• If you consume caffeine and/or alcohol, do so in moderationLUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-75504116805444471972009-01-11T05:04:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:56:14.947-08:00Premature Ejaculation<span style="font-weight:bold;">Premature Ejaculation</span><br />(Rapid Ejaculation)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />Ejaculation occurs when a man reaches sexual climax and semen is ejected from his penis. Premature ejaculation is: <br />• Ejaculation occurs before the man wishes it to occur.<br />• Ejaculation occurs too quickly to sexually satisfy his partner.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />Many men experience premature ejaculation at one time or another. For example, some men experience it after not having had sex for a long period of time. Premature ejaculation is only a problem when it becomes a persistent condition. Persistent premature ejaculation usually results from a man's inability to recognize that he is about to ejaculate. (Ejaculation occurs automatically after a certain degree of sexual stimulation.) This inability prevents him from taking steps to delay the process.<br />Psychological factors that may contribute include: <br />• Guilt about sex<br />• Fear of causing pregnancy<br />• Fear of getting a sexually transmitted disease<br />• Concerns about sexual performance<br />• Interpersonal difficulties between sexual partners<br />• Early sexual experiences that condition a man to rapid ejaculation. This includes fear of "being caught" having sex.<br />In rare cases, premature ejaculation can be caused by: <br />• Prostate problems, such as prostatitis<br />• A neurological problem<br />• Medications that increase sexual stimulation<br />• Certain medical conditions (eg, thyroid problems)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition. Risk factors for premature ejaculation include: <br />• Lack of sexual experience<br />• Lack of knowledge of male and female sexual responses<br />• Fear of: <br />o Causing pregnancy<br />o Contracting a sexually transmitted disease<br />o Poor sexual performance<br />• Interpersonal problems between sexual partner<br />• Early sexual experiences that precondition a man to rapid ejaculation<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />The primary symptom is persistent episodes of premature ejaculation during sex. Secondary symptoms may include: <br />• Feelings of guilt, inadequacy, or self-doubt<br />• New or increased interpersonal problems with a sexual partner<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />Most men experiencing premature ejaculation will notice the condition themselves. If you see a doctor about the condition, the doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam.<br />The doctor may search for an underlying medical cause if: <br />• You suddenly developed persistent premature ejaculation and have never experienced it before.<br />• You have other neurological symptoms.<br />• You are taking medication that may cause premature ejaculation.<br />• The condition is getting much worse or causing severe problems for you.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Treatments may include:<br />Behavior Therapy<br />This aims to improve your ability to: <br />• Recognize when you are about to ejaculate<br />• Take steps to delay it<br />It may include:<br />Start and Stop Method— stopping sexual stimulation for 30 seconds when nearing climax, then resuming. <br />Squeeze Method— same as start and stop method, but includes gently squeezing the base of penis before the 30-second stop period. <br />Biofeedback— electrical feedback that helps you learn to control the muscles that cause ejaculation. <br />Sexual Positions— trying different sexual positions that may allow greater control over the muscles that cause ejaculation. <br />Psychological Counseling<br />Counseling may be offered for an individual or for a couple. It is aimed at identifying and treating: <br />• Fears or guilt<br />• Interpersonal problems with your partner that may contribute to the condition<br />Medication<br />In some cases, a doctor may prescribe a desensitizing cream that a man can apply to his penis to lessen sexual stimulation. In other cases, a doctor may prescribe an antidepressant medicine such as Zoloft or Prozac, since such antidepressants have been found to delay orgasm in both men and women. However, these drugs do not cure the underlying cause of premature ejaculation.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />To help prevent premature ejaculation: <br />• Learn how male and female sexual responses work.<br />• Improve communication with your partner before engaging in sexual activity.<br />• Have sex in situations that are private and relaxed.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-14018905161875924982009-01-11T05:03:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:56:29.848-08:00Poliomyelitis<span style="font-weight:bold;">Poliomyelitis</span><br />(Polio)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition </span><br />Poliomyelitis is a very contagious viral infection that can lead to paralysis. <br />Polio epidemics in the United States were once common throughout the summer months. Because of very effective vaccination programs, polio is now extremely rare in the Western world. However, polio is still a significant problem in parts of Africa and Asia. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes </span><br />Polio is caused by the poliovirus. You can get the virus from contact with: <br />• An infected person <br />• Infected saliva or feces <br />• Contaminated water or sewage <br />Poliovirus enters the body through the mouth. It travels to the intestines and reproduces quickly. The virus then travels through the blood and lymph fluid to attack and destroy areas of the nervous system. <br />Risk Factors <br />The following factors increase your chances of developing polio: <br />• Lack of vaccination or incomplete vaccination <br />• Travel to countries where polio is still common (areas of Africa and Asia) <br />• Preschool child with immune disorder, exposed to polio virus through vaccination <br />• Young adult exposed to poliovirus through contact with someone recently vaccinated <br />• Elderly adult <br />• Pregnancy <br />• Strenuous exercise <br />• Recent tonsillectomy or dental procedure <br />• Immunodeficiency <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span> <br />If you experience any of these symptoms do not assume it is due to polio. These symptoms may be caused by other, less serious health conditions. Contact your physician if you experience these symptoms. <br />• Minor illness <br />o Headache <br />o Fever <br />o Sore throat <br />o Illness lasts about a week <br />• Major illness <br />o Fever <br />o Headache <br />o Nausea and vomiting <br />o Diarrhea <br />o Stiff neck <br />o Neck pain <br />o Severe muscle pain <br />o Muscle spasms <br />o Muscle weakness <br />o Paralysis <br />o Usually asymmetric (affecting each side to varying amounts, or only affecting a single side) <br />o Muscles become flaccid (loose, floppy) <br />o Legs more commonly affected than arms <br />o Muscles required for breathing may be come paralyzed <br />o Urinary retention <br />o Decades later, previously stable muscle weakness may worsen due to post-polio syndrome <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span> <br />Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. <br />Tests may include the following: <br />• Identifying the virus in material from throat swabs, rectal swabs, stool samples, or cerebrospinal fluid <br />• Immunological tests to prove that the body has responded to the presence of poliovirus by producing antibodies designed to fight the virus <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment </span><br />Talk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. There are no treatments available to rid your body of the poliovirus. Treatment is designed to be supportive, to treat your symptoms, and to help you avoid complications. <br />Bed Rest<br />While you still have a fever during the initial phase of illness, you’ll rest in bed. You may be fitted with splints to prevent your joints from becoming too stiff (contractures). You may receive physical therapy during which your limbs will be moved for you (passive exercises). <br />Fever Control<br />Analgesic medications such as acetaminophen or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents can be given to lower fever and decrease muscle pain. <br />Assisted Ventilation<br />If the muscles you need to breathe become too weak or paralyzed, you may require a period of time on a mechanical ventilator which will take over the work of breathing for you. <br />Rehabilitation<br />As soon as possible after your fever passes, you will be given exercises and physical therapy to help you regain mobility and to improve your muscle strength. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention </span><br />Two types of vaccines are available to prevent polio. Oral polio vaccine is given by mouth and uses weakened live viruses. Injected vaccine is in shot form and uses killed viruses. Although the risk is very small, there is a tiny chance of actually acquiring polio due to exposure to the live viruses used in the oral polio vaccine. Therefore, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention now recommend that only injected vaccine be used. <br />Current immunization recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention include: <br />• Children should receive a series of four immunization injections, at <br />o Two months <br />o Four months <br />o 6-18 months <br />o 4-6 years <br />• Adults who have never been immunized should receive a series of three injections if they are at high risk of contracting polio. Risk is increased in adults who<br />o travel to areas where poliovirus is still common, <br />o care for individuals with polio, or <br />o are laboratory workers in labs where poliovirus is handled.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-47813652403693678372009-01-11T04:58:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:56:58.224-08:00Pneumothorax<span style="font-weight:bold;">Pneumothorax</span><br />Pronounced: Noom-oh-THOR-ax <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition </span><br />Pneumothorax is a condition in which air or gas collects in the "pleural space" or "pleural cavity," which is the space between the lungs and the chest cavity. This can cause the lung to collapse. <br />Normally, the lungs sit next to the inner surface of the chest wall. Thin membranes called pleura cover both the lungs and the chest wall. A pneumothorax occurs when air either escapes the lung or leaks in through the chest wall and builds up in the pleural space between them. This build-up of air can result in the collapse of the affected lung. <br />There are different types of pneumothorax, and each one is defined by its cause. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes </span><br />Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax occurs when there is no other underlying lung disease. It is often caused by the rupture of an air-filled sac in the lung, called a bleb or bulla. <br />Smoking is associated with a higher incidence of spontaneous pneumothorax.<br />Secondary Spontaneous Pneumothorax occurs as a complication of another lung disease. Lung diseases which are associated with the development of pneumothorax include: <br />• COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease) <br />• Asthma<br />• Cystic Fibrosis<br />• TB (tuberculosis) <br />• Pertussis (whooping cough) <br />Traumatic Pneumothorax occurs as a result of a traumatic injury to the chest. The injury could be penetrating, such as a bullet or stab wound, or blunt, such as a blow to the chest or automobile accident. A traumatic pneumothorax can complicate other medical procedures that may be necessary following a traumatic injury. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Rib Fractures With Pneumothorax </span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnt9m5Eh5I/AAAAAAAAApA/SlaXRKzNJFo/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 361px; height: 400px;" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWnt9m5Eh5I/AAAAAAAAApA/SlaXRKzNJFo/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290020879991080850" /></a> <br />Tension Pneumothorax occurs when excessive pressure builds up around the lung and forces it to collapse. This pressure can also affect the heart’s ability to pump blood. For this reason, tension pneumothorax is considered the most serious type. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span> <br />The following factors increase your chances of developing pneumothorax: <br />• Spontaneous pneumothorax occurs most often in tall, thin men who are between the ages of 20-40 <br />• Smoking <br />• Having a family history of pneumothorax <br />• Having other lung diseases such as COPD, asthma, cystic fibrosis, tuberculosis, or pertussis <br />• Suffering a trauma injury to the chest <br />• Infants who require ventilator assistance are at a higher risk of developing tension pneumothorax <br />• More men than women experience pneumothorax <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms </span><br />If you experience any of the symptoms listed below do not assume it is due to pneumothorax. These symptoms are often caused by other, less serious health conditions. If you experience any of them, see your physician. <br />Symptoms of pneumothorax may occur while you are awake or while you are asleep. They can include: <br />• Sudden, sharp pain in the chest that becomes worse during coughing or taking deep breaths <br />• Acute shortness of breath <br />• Fever<br />• Fatigue <br />• Tightness in the chest <br />• Rapid heartbeat <br />• Bluish color of the skin due to a lack of oxygen <br />• Flaring of the nostrils <br />• Feelings of anxiety, stress, and tension <br />• Hypotension, or low blood pressure <br />• A distended abdomen <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis </span><br />Your doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. He or she may notice that the affected side of your chest has reduced or absent breath sounds during the stethoscope examination. Other tests may be performed, such as the following: <br />• A chest x-ray may be performed to determine if there is air outside the lung. In some cases, a CT scan may be performed instead. Both of these procedures involve taking pictures of your chest. Ultrasound is an alternative option for those who can’t be moved, commonly used in trauma cases.<br />• Pulse oximetry is a noninvasive way to measure your oxygen status.<br />Since the development of pneumothorax can be delayed in the case of traumatic pneumothorax, repeating x-rays the day after the injury may be needed. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment </span><br />While a small pneumothorax will usually resolve itself without intervention in a week or two, a larger pneumothorax often requires treatment. Oxygen is commonly administered.<br />Treatment focuses on removing the air from the pleural space so the lung can again expand to its full capacity. This can be accomplished by inserting a needle and syringe or inserting a chest tube. <br />Chest Tube Insertion<br />• In this procedure, the doctor will insert a small tube between the ribs into the pleural cavity where the pneumothorax is located. Before the procedure, you may receive sedation, your doctor will then numb the area where the tube is to be inserted using local anesthesia. Next, he or she will make an incision, insert the tube, and connect it to a bottle or canister that contains sterile liquid. A suction mechanism is also attached to encourage drainage. The tube is held in place by a suture or a piece of surgical tape. <br />• The chest tube will remain in place until x-rays show that the air or gas has drained from the pleural space and the lung is once again fully expanded. This can take several days. No further medication is necessary, although sometimes antibiotics are prescribed to ward off possible infection from the tube. <br />Surgery to remove blebs or attach the lung permanently to the chest wall is sometimes needed to prevent recurrences. <br />Up to 50% of patients who experience pneumothorax have a recurrence, but there are no long-term consequences following treatment. <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention </span><br />There is no known way to prevent pneumothorax. However, you can lower your risk of developing pneumothorax by: <br />• Not smoking. <br />• Wearing a seatbelt when in a motor vehicle to help prevent accident-related chest trauma. <br />• Being aware of the symptoms associated with pneumothorax if you have another lung disease. <br />• If you have a history of pneumothorax, it is often recommended that you avoid SCUBA diving.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-325139819350837972.post-37667180169625933222009-01-11T04:56:00.000-08:002009-01-24T04:57:13.007-08:00Pneumonia<span style="font-weight:bold;">Pneumonia</span><br />Pronounced: Noo-MO-NEE-yah<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Definition</span><br />Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs caused by a variety of different organisms.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Effects of Pneumonia on the Lungs</span><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWns45IC6TI/AAAAAAAAAo4/gS1v5tq9Qe4/s1600-h/clip_image001.jpg"><img style="display:block; margin:0px auto 10px; text-align:center;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 390px; height: 380px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_XAly2BOlwDw/SWns45IC6TI/AAAAAAAAAo4/gS1v5tq9Qe4/s400/clip_image001.jpg" border="0" alt=""id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290019699474753842" /></a> <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Causes</span><br />Pneumonia affects the lower respiratory tract (small bronchi and air sacs in the lungs). There are three main causes:<br />Bacterial Pneumonia— caused by bacteria, most commonly Streptococcus pneumoniae<br />Viral Pneumonia— caused by a virus. Viruses cause half of all pneumonias. <br />Atypical Bacterial Pneumonia— caused by mycoplasmas, chlamydias, or other tiny infectious agents that have traits of both bacteria and viruses. Walking pneumonia, as this type of pneumonia is often popularly called, implies a milder pneumonia. However, each of these infectious agents has the potential to cause a more serious or potentially fatal pneumonia. <br />Other causes of pneumonia include: <br />• Fungal infections, such as Pneumocystis cariniipneumonia (PCP)—a fungal infection common in people with AIDS<br />Pneumonias are sometimes divided on the basis of where it was acquired and how you were exposed to it: <br />• Community Acquired Pneumonia—this type of pneumonia is acquired, as the name suggests, in the community (ie, at school, work, gym etc.)<br />• Nosocomial Pneumonia—is acquired during a hospitalization. It can be very dangerous, especially for patients on a ventilator.<br />• Aspiration Pneumonia—it happens when a foreign matter (most frequently stomach content) is inhaled.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Risk Factors</span><br />A risk factor is something that increases your chance of getting a disease or condition.<br />Risk factors include: <br />• Age: 65 or older<br />• Flu or other respiratory illness <br />• Chronic illness, such as heart or lung disease<br />• Stroke (aspiration pneumonia due to difficult swallowing) <br />• Weakened immune system caused by AIDS or chemotherapy treatment <br />• Chronic bronchitis<br />• Malnutrition<br />• Pregnancy<br />• Infants and very young children<br />• Alcohol or drug abuse<br />• Smoking<br />• Chronic exposure to certain chemicals (eg, work in construction or agriculture)<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Symptoms</span><br />Symptoms of pneumonia may include some or all of the following:<br />Bacterial Pneumonia Viral Pneumonia Atypical Pneumonia<br />Fever Fever Fever, often low-grade<br />Shaking chills Chills Chills<br />Cough that produces green, yellow, or rust-colored mucus Dry cough Coughing; may be violent at times; produces white mucus<br />Chest pain Headache Possible nausea or vomiting<br />Profuse sweating Muscle pain Weakness<br />Bluish color of the nails or lips due to diminished oxygen in the blood Bluish color of the nails or lips due to diminished oxygen in the blood <br />Confused mental state Weakness <br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Diagnosis</span><br />The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history, and perform a physical exam. Diagnosis of pneumonia is based on symptoms and listening to your chest with a stethoscope. In addition, tests may include: <br />• Chest X-ray —a test that uses radiation to take pictures of structures inside the body, in this case the chest <br />• CT Scan —a type of x-ray that uses a computer to make pictures of structures inside the chest <br />• Blood Tests<br />• Bronchoscopy —direct examination of airways <br />• Sputum Culture—testing mucus coughed up from deep in the lungs<br />• Pulse Oximetry—measures the amount of oxygen in the blood<br />• Arterial Blood Gas—measures oxygen, carbon dioxide, and acid in the blood<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Treatment</span><br />Treatment of pneumonia depends on: <br />• The type of pneumonia<br />• Severity of symptoms<br />• Other factors<br />Common methods of treatment include:<br />Bacterial Pneumonia<br />Antibiotics.<br />Viral Pneumonia<br />• Rest and fluids<br />• Antiviral medicines—may be prescribed for young children and patients with weakened immune systems ( Note: Antibiotics are ineffective for treating viral pneumonia.) <br />Atypical Pneumonia<br />Usually treated with antibiotics.<br />General<br />• Over-the-counter medicines to reduce fever and aches, and soothe cough<br />• Hospitalization, for people with very severe symptoms<br />It is very important to take medicine exactly as prescribed. Stopping medicine midway may cause a relapse, or create a strain of bacteria resistant to drug treatment.<br /><span style="font-weight:bold;">Prevention</span><br />Certain vaccines can help prevent pneumonia:<br />Flu Shot— for people at high risk, particularly the elderly, because pneumonia may be a complication of the flu <br />Pneumococcal Vaccine— recommended for people over age 65, or those who have a chronic illness, such as diabetes or sickle-cell disease<br />Other preventive measures include: <br />• Avoid smoking. Smoking weakens the lungs' resistance to infection.<br />• Avoid close contact with people who have respiratory infections.<br />• Wash hands often when coming in contact with infected people.<br />• Protect yourself from exposures on the job that affect the lungs.<br />• Eat a healthy diet.<br />• Get adequate rest.<br />• Exercise regularly.LUSOIXhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/09299078322255827150noreply@blogger.com0